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Phosphorus

An Element that could have been called Lucifer

verfasst von: Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Verlag: Springer New York

Buchreihe : SpringerBriefs in Environmental Science

Enthalten in: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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Über dieses Buch

This book starts with depiction of the phosphorus role in life creation and evolution. Then it outlines in which vital processes different phosphates participate in life of all flora and fauna, from DNA molecules till body tissues. Crucial function of phosphates was noticed long ago, but only in XIX century discovery of mineral fertilizers made it possible to sustain the needs of growing global population, thus initiating a “green revolution”. Though, for many decades after it, the complexity of interactions “fertilizer-soil-plant roots” was underrated, causing massive damages, such as soil destruction and eutrophication of waters. Still, mining of exhausting natural phosphate reserves continued worldwide. Lessons of what happened in XIX century due to scarcity of phosphates were ignored. In the meantime, production of phosphates reached its peak few years ago. Immediate implementation of phosphate recycling technologies from municipal wastes can help avoid imminent global disaster.

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Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter

Chapter 1. The Role of Phosphorus in the Origin of Life and in Evolution

Abstract

Phosphorus, in the form of phosphate, has played an important role in the origin and evolution of life on several different levels. It was, most likely, a key component in the early precursors of RNA that existed before real life, where it both stored information and acted as a catalyst. It plays an essential role in both the genetics and the energy systems of all living cells as well as in the cell membrane of all modern cells. Phosphorus has also had a decisive role in forming the climatic and atmospheric conditions that set the boundary conditions for evolution and led to us humans and the world we know now.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 2. Phosphorus in the Organic Life: Cells, Tissues, Organisms

Abstract

As already mentioned (see Chap. 1), in the living cell phosphorus plays a decisive role in three different essential structures:

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 3. Phosphorus in Social Life

Abstract

Since about 1950, mineral oil has become the main source of external energy among all other alternatives, although it emerged in our lives only in the twentieth century. For this reason, the warning on “Peak Oil” (see Chap. 9, this volume) has become a matter of common concern, reflected in multiple energy-saving measures worldwide, creating political tensions around possession of oil reserves and causing a steady price increase trend in the oil markets.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 4. Silent Underground Life

Abstract

Soil is sometimes called “the skin of the Earth.” The health of its sensitive and vulnerable upper layer strongly depends upon global industrial development sustainability and prevailing environmental problems. As is human skin, soil is an extremely complicated substance requiring adequate understanding and maintenance. From the agricultural point of view, its role is much more sophisticated than just providing support for the plant roots and conducting nutrients through its pores from the soil nutrients toward these roots. Misunderstanding of this complexity lasted for many decades and resulted in soil destruction, desertification, and loss of its initial fertility. Further, it has resulted in vigorous attempts to boost soil fertility with overdoses of water-soluble mineral fertilizers during several decades of the twentieth century. Uncontrolled fertilization, although initially resulting in substantial increases of soil productivity, soon backfired as accelerated eutrophication, dust storms, accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, and the growing vulnerability of plants toward deceases and climatic changes. In this context, the time came to change the approach and redesign the features of fertilizers, making them an interactive component of the complex system “fertilizer–soil–roots.”

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 5. Fertilizers: 100 Years of Supremacy

Abstract

Urbanization gradually started in Europe in medieval times, that is, between A.D. 500 and 1500. Historical need and the necessity of urbanization were created by the multiple advantages of living together in large cities, as compared to being dispersed across vast territories. However, this migration was followed by several negative factors, the influence of which cannot be underestimated, such as the growth of poverty and inequality and the deterioration of sanitary conditions and the health of populations. The human nutrition chain also was perturbed: people could no longer live by means of their fields and livestock, and cities needed the development of more extensive farming nearby to supply city dwellers in increasing numbers. In the beginning, natural soil fertility in the surrounding rural areas allowed achieving better harvests, but with the continuous increase in food consumption in urban settlements and the shrinking of farmers’ land around the cities, malnutrition of large parts of the urban population became a factor of social stress and economic danger. The discovery of fertilizers was a breakthrough that allowed further industrialization and urbanization to continue until the end of the twentieth century.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 6. Nonfertilizer Uses of Phosphorus

Abstract

Although quite a substantial amount of mined phosphate (P) (about 12 %: see Chap. 4) is used for purposes other than fertilization, this issue is not reviewed in detail in this book. Although the variety and intricacy of the nonagricultural applications of P bear witness to the complex and interesting chemistry of this basic element, these applications are not considered in detail here for the following reasons:

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 7. Eutrophication

Abstract

Phosphorus as phosphate is as important for aquatic plants as it is for crops on land, and very often it is also the limiting nutrient. For algal plankton productivity, it can almost be said that it is the limiting factor, as we mostly do not care too much about what type of plankton carries out photosynthesis and carbon fixation. Should nitrogen as nitrate or ammonia be in short supply, while phosphate is relatively abundant, blue-green algae with nitrogen fixation ability will quickly form a large part of the algal community and secure biomass production until phosphate becomes limiting.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 8. The Politics of P

Abstract

Farmers all over the world had long known how to put animal and human urine and feces back on their fields to increase yields. It can therefore be seen as a small step to collect also more or less fossilized droppings from birds and bats for the same purpose. Off the west coast of South America, birds feeding on anchovetas and other small fishes in the rich upwelling zones nest on a number of small islands, where guano deposits have accumulated over centuries or millennia and reached thicknesses as great as 50 m, as on the islands of Chincha. The first to utilize those and apply guano on their fields were Andean Indians. In small boats and further on, on the back of llamas, they transported the fertilizer from some of the nearby islands up to their terraced farmland in the mountains. The Incas had an advanced system for distributing the fertilizer to villages in relationship to the taxes they paid and the labor days they provided to the central system. To take guano allocated to another village was a serious crime with stiff penalties. Disturbing the bird colonies during the nesting season was also unlawful.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 9. Peak Phosphorus

Abstract

The expression “Peak Phosphorus” stems from the earlier works of M.K. Hubbert, a geophysicist from Shell Oil, who already in the 1960s correctly predicted that oil production in the USA would reach its peak before 2000. Further on, his method was applied to forecasting of the exhaustion time of the global oil reserves as well as gas, coal, uranium, and, which is the most interesting for us, phosphorus.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Chapter 10. Phosphate Recycling or Welcome from Lucifer?

Abstract

One of the most prominent thinkers of the twentieth century said: “Life can multiply until all the phosphorus has gone and then there is an inexorable halt which nothing can prevent.” (Asimov 1974). The currently functioning phosphate supply chain, starting from its initial point (rock mining) and ending at the demand points (human and animal food), has many dissipation spots where masses of phosphate leave the supply chain and are scattered in the environment as pollutants.

Mikhail Butusov, Arne Jernelöv

Titel: Phosphorus
verfasst von: Mikhail Butusov
Arne Jernelöv
Copyright-Jahr: 2013
Verlag: Springer New York
Electronic ISBN: 978-1-4614-6803-5
Print ISBN: 978-1-4614-6802-8
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-6803-5

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