1. 1932: Material and Moral Disarmament, a Mission to China and a Conference in Milan

Henri Rollin, ‘The First General Disarmament Conference,’ Problem of Peace: Sixth Series: Lectures Delivered at the Geneva Institute of International Relations, August 1931 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1932), 59.

Ibid., 743, 759.

Ibid., 749.

Ibid., 750.

Ibid., 751. The General Treaty for Renunciation of War as an Instrument of National Policy was unofficially known as the Pact of Paris. It was also often referred to as the Kellogg-Briand Pact after its two official sponsors: the American secretary of state, Frank B. Kellogg, and the French foreign minister, Aristide Briand.

Ibid., 750–2.

‘Can War Be Abolished?’ Signs of the Times 47, no. 22 (1932): 3. For the meeting of savants in Berlin in March 1928, see ‘Experts pour la coordination des hautes études internationales: Réunion des 22–24 Mars 1928—Berlin,’ Bulletin de la Section d’Information et de Documentation, no. 19 (1928): 8–10, 9. This bulletin was published under the auspices of Institut International de la Coopération Intellectuelle (IICI) and the Société des Nations (SDN).

Ibid., 44.

Ibid., 48.

Ibid.

Ibid., 49–50. William Horsfall Carter claimed that the guarantee of political independence and territorial integrity under Article 10 of the covenant, ‘was originally bound up with a guarantee of peaceful change, as adumbrated in the present Article 19, and was disjoined from it only in one of the later meetings of the League of Nations Commission.’ W. Horsfall Carter, ‘Naming the Aggressor,’ The New Commonwealth: Being the Monthly Organ of a Society for the Promotion of International Law and Order 2, no. 10 (1934): 142–4, 142.

Hoetzsch, ‘The German View of Disarmament,’ 50.

Ibid., 50–1, 54.

Otto Hoetzsch to Henri Bonnet, 23 October 1931, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1 October 1931–31 March 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA. Werner Picht’s appointment as head of the University Relations Section was announced in a bulletin which appeared on 15 July 1927. See ‘Appointments,’ Bulletin of the Section of Information and Reference, nos. 9–10 (1927), 2. This bulletin was published under the auspices of the League of Nations (LON) and the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation (IIIC). For details of the meeting of experts in Berlin, see Bulletin de la Section d’Information et de Documentation, no. 19 (1928), 8–9. For Margarete Rothbarth, see Jean-Jacques Renoliet, L’UNESCO oubliée: La Société des Nations et la Coopération Intellectuelle (Paris: Publications de la Sorbonne, 1999), 239. In a letter addressed to the president of the ICIC in November 1926, Julien Luchaire stated that he had concluded an agreement with the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik (DHP) as a result of which the DHP had given the IIIC a grant. In view of this grant, Luchaire stated, that Rothbarth, a professor at the DHP, had been accorded a role at the IIIC. According to Renoliet, Rothbarth, who was born in Frankfurt, remained at the IIIC until 1940. See also Ute Lemke, ‘“La femme, la clandestine de l’histoire” Margarete Rothbarth—ein Engagement für den Völkerbund,’ Lendemain 37, nos. 146–147 (2012): 45–58, https://​www.​periodicals.​narr.​de/​index.​php/​Lendemain/​article/​view/​472/​450. Ute Lemke quotes a letter penned by Luchaire in October 1926, in which he states that the IIIC had created a ‘German service’ in the Section of Information and Documentation and that Rothbarth would be responsible for the service. Her ‘mission’ was to ‘observe the intellectuals of Germany from the point of view of international cooperation’ and to concern herself with all those matters addressed by the IIIC insofar as they interested Germany. Julien Luchaire, 1926, quoted in Lemke,  ‘“La femme, la clandestine de l’histoire” Margarete Rothbarth—ein Engagement für den Völkerbund,’ 52. Citing a letter penned by Hugo Andres Krüss, the head of the Prussian State Archives who sometimes stood in for Einstein at meetings associated with the ICIC before going on to replace him on the committee following Einstein’s resignation from it, Lemke states that the funding for Rothbarth’s position did not in fact emanate from the DHP but came from the German Foreign Office. Lemke points out that when Germany withdrew German from   the LON in October 1933, Rothbarth remained at the IIIC because ‘[f]or her as a Jew, the return to a now National Socialist Germany had become impossible.’ Lemke, ‘“La femme, la clandestine de l’ histoire” Margarete Rothbarth—ein Engagement für den Völkerbund,’ 53.

‘Le Congrés international d’études pour le désarmement tenu hier sa première séance,’ L’Oeuvre, 27 November 1931; ‘Campaign Against Disarmament: French Press Quote Cardinal Bourne,’ Manchester Guardian, 27 November 1931; ‘Une conférence sur le désarmement au Trocadéro,’ L’Oeuvre, 28 November 1931; ‘Les incidents au congrés international d’étude pour le désarmement au Trocadéro,’ Le Matin, November 28, 1931; and ‘War Mentality in Paris: Breaking Up of Peace Meeting,’ Manchester Guardian, November 30, 1931.

Louise Weiss (1893–1983) journaliste, féministe et femme politique française, École nationale d’administration, Centre de documentation, May 2016, 3–5. https://​www.​ena.​fr/​…/​2/​…/​Dossier%20​WEISS.​pdf.​

‘New Campaign for Disarmament,’ Manchester Guardian, July 27, 1931, and Louise Weiss (1893–1983) journaliste, féministe et femme politique française, 5.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Walter Lippmann with the assistance of the research staff of the Council on Foreign Relations, United States in World Affairs: An Account of American Foreign Relations (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1932), 137.

‘The League of Nations 1928,’ in Editorial Research Reports 1928, vol. 4 (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1928), 1027. http://​library.​cqpress.​com/​cqresearcher/​cqresrre19281108​00, and Henry de Jouvenel, ‘Internationalisez l’aviation,’ La Revue des Vivants: Organe des Générations de la Guerre 2, no. 10 (1928): 725–33, 732.

Jouvenel, ‘Internationalisez l’aviation,’ 732–3.

Ibid.

League of Nations, Eight Ordinary Session of the Assembly of the League of Nations: Arbitration, Security, Disarmament and the Work of the Preparatory Commission of the Disarmament Conference, League of Nations Document A. 24. 1927. IX (Geneva: LON, 26 September 1927), 1.

Jouvenel, ‘Internationalisez l’aviation,’ 732.

Gaëtan Sanvoisin, ‘Le Congrès du Désarmement provoque un discours imprévu et courageux de M. Painlevé,’ Figaro, November 27, 1931, 5; Maria Vérone, ‘La foi dans la Paix,’ L’Oeuvre, November 28, 1931; René Cassin, ‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 22 (1932): 20–9, 20–3; and L’Oeuvre, November 27, 1931. Between 1922 and 1933, under the proprietorship of François Coty, Le Figaro was entitled Figaro. On the discussions held at the Sorbonne, see ‘Le désarmement moral et les organisations intellectuelles,’Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932): 723–8, 724. IICI/01, UA. The Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle was published under the auspices of the IICI and the SDN. The Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle became Coopération Intellectuelle dating from issue no. 17–18, 1932.

‘Le Congrès international d’études pour le désarmement,’ Le Temps, November 28, 1931; ‘Speakers for Disarmament Guarded by Policy in Paris: Nationalist Threat,’ Manchester Guardian, 28 November 1931; and Vérone ‘La foi dans la paix,’ L’Oeuvre, November 28, 1931.

Ronald W. Clark, Einstein: The Life and Times (London: Hodder and Staunton, 1996), 345; Renoliet, L’UNESCO oubliée, 72; and Henri Bonnet, Intellectual Co-operation in World Organization (Washington, DC: American Council on Public Affairs, 1942), 9.

Sanvoisin, ‘Le Congrès du Désarmement provoque un discours imprévu et courageux de M. Painlevé,’ 5; Gaëtan Sanvoisin, ‘Painlevé chez les pacifistes: une courageuse intervention,’ Figaro, November 27, 1931, 1; and Le Temps, November 28, 1931.

Sanvoisin, ‘Painlevé chez les pacifistes: une courageuse intervention,’ 1, and Sanvoisin, ‘Le Congrès du Désarmement provoque un discours imprévu et courageux de M. Painlevé,’ 5.

Sanvoisin, ‘Le Congrès du Désarmement provoque un discours imprévu et courageux de M. Painlevé,’ 5.

Joseph Paul-Boncour, Entre deux guerres: souvenirs de le III⁰ République, vol. 2, Les lendemain de la victoire 1919–1934 (Paris: Plon, 1945), 264–5. See also Maurice Vaïsse, Sécurité d’abord: la politique française en matière de désarmement, 9 décembre 1930–17 avril 1934 (Paris: Pedone, 1981), 38, 163; and Serge Berstein, ‘Le milieu genevois dans la France de l’entre-deux-guerres,’ Les Internationales et le problème de la guerre au XX siècle, Actes du colloque de Rome: 22–24 November 1984 (Rome: École française de Rome, 1987), 321–35, 330. https://​www.​persee.​fr/​doc/​efr_​0000-0000_​1987_​act_​95_​1_​2904.

Paul-Boncour, Entre deux guerres: souvenirs de le III0 République, vol. 2, Les lendemain de la victoire 1919–1934, 268. See also Vaisse, Sécurité d’abord, 38, 162–3, and Berstein, ‘Le milieu genevois dans la France de l’entre-deux-guerres,’ 330.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Ibid.

Manchester Guardian, November 28, 1931; ‘War Mentality in Paris: Breaking Up of Peace Meeting,’ Manchester Guardian, November 30, 1931; L’Oeuvre, November 28, 1931; Le Temps, November 29, 1931; and Le Matin, November 28, 1931.

Le Temps, November 29, 1931, and Le Matin, November 28, 1931.

L’Oeuvre, November 28, 1931, and Le Temps, November 29, 1931.

Manchester Guardian, November 139, 931. See also Vaïsse, Sécurité d’abord, 154.

United Nations Library (Geneva), League of Nations Archives, ‘The Geneva Protocol and the Disarmament Conference of 1932,’ in United Nations Library (Geneva), League of Nations Archives, The League of Nations, 1920–1946: Organization and Accomplishments; A Retrospective of the First Organization for the Establishment of World Peace (New York: United Nations, 1996), 143.

A. H. Charteris, ‘Germany and the Disarmament Conference,’ Australian Quarterly 5, no. 18 (1933): 69–79, 72–3. See also Jan Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation: The League Experience and the Beginnings of UNESCO (Wraclaw: Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich, 1962), 1, 124.

‘Publicity and Press,’ in United Nations Library (Geneva), League of Nations Archives, The League of Nations, 1920–1946, 132 and S. H. Bailey, International Studies in Great Britain (London: Oxford University Press, 1933), 291.

Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 113–4.

Georges Scelle and René Cassin, ‘French Public Opinion and the Problem of Collective Security,’ in Maurice Bourquin, ed., Collective Security: A Record of the Seventh and Eighth International Study Conferences, Paris 1934-London 1935 (Paris: IIIC, 1936), 73–74. On the petitions arriving in Geneva, see Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 114.

Scelle and Cassin, ‘French Opinion and the Problem of Collective Security,’ 74.

Ibid.

League of Nations [hereafter LON], special supplement, Official Journal [hereafter OJ], no. 9 (1922): 25–7. In the publications of the International Cooperation Organisation, the ICO was often referred to in English as the Organisation of Intellectual Cooperation. In French, it was called the Organisation de Coopération Intellectuelle.

Moral Disarmament: Memorandum from the Polish Government (Geneva, LON, 23 September 1931), Désarmement moral, 1931–1937, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 114–5.

Twenty-Eighth Universal Peace Congress, 1931, quoted ibid. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 115.

Moral Disarmament: Memorandum from the Polish Government, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 116n.

Ibid. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 118.

Moral Disarmament: Memorandum from the Polish Government, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 116.

‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation,’ Information Bulletin of the League of Nations’ Intellectual Co-operation Organisation [hereafter Information Bulletin], 1, no. 1 (1932): 12–6, 12–3.

Jean-Daniel de Montenach to James T. Shotwell, 25 November 1932 and Shotwell to Montenach, 27 December 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 116.

Montenach to Gilbert Murray, 11 January 1932 and Montenach to the Secretary of the IIIC, 22 January 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Gilbert Murray, ‘Letter from Professor Gilbert Murray, President of the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation,’ in International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1932 (Paris: IIIC, 1933), 5–6, and ‘Moral Disarmament,’ in LON, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 22–6. See also Moral Disarmament and the International Co-ordination of the Study and Teaching of International Affairs: The Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations: Its Organisation and Activities, 19 January 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. For the ICIC’s resolutions on the Polish memorandum, see Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932): 12–6.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932), 14, and Series of League of Nations Publications, IX, Disarmament, 1932 IX. 18, quoted in Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 117. Jan Kolasa notes that apart from the request for the formation of a special committee there was ‘no substantial difference’ between the first and second memoranda. Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 117.

LON, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 22–3, and ‘Désarmement moral: première réunion du Sous-Comité de la Conférence de Désarmement,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932): 705–6. See also, IIIC, School Text-Book Revision and International Understanding, 2nd ed. (Paris: IIIC, 1933), 39.

LON, IIIC, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 22–3. See also ‘Pour le Désarmement moral: Les gouvernements sont consultés sur un projet de protocole,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 17–18 (1932): 909–12, and IIIC, School Text-Book Revision and International Understanding, 40–1.

LON, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 23–4 and IIIC, School Text-Book Revision and International Understanding, 40. See also Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 17–18 (1932), 909–11. Arthur Henderson assured the Liaison Committee of the Major International Associations that its message would be mentioned in the conference journal. For the text of the committee’s message and Henderson’s response to it, see Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932), 727. For Henderson’s role in involving the public in the conference, see Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 114.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932), 15. On the initial response to the Polish Memorandum, see M. C. Lebrun, ‘La France et le Désarmement Moral,’ Manuel Scolaire de l’Instruction Primaire, no. 42 (1932): 803.

The following countries were represented on the committee: Belgium, Bolivia, Bulgaria, Canada, China, Denmark, Egypt, France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, Spain, Switzerland, the United Kingdom, the United States, Uruguay, the USSR and Yugoslavia. For the names of those appointed to this committee, see IIIC, School Text-Book Revision and International Understanding, 40. For Ernest Perrier’s status, see Gonzague de Reynold, preface to LON and ICO, National Committees on Intellectual Co-operation (Geneva: LON, 1937), 12–3.

Gilbert Murray to Henri Bonnet, 18 March 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932), 14–5, and Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932), 728.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932), 705–6. For Vespasian Pella’s role in relation to the Romanian penal code, see ‘Intellectual Co-operation Before the Assembly and the Council of the League of Nations,’ Information Bulletin, 1, nos. 15–16 (1933): 409–19, 413–4, and ‘Discours prononcés à la XIV^e session de l’Assemblé,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 34–35 (1933): 570–6, 575.

Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 34–35 (1933), 576. On Pella’s advisory role, see ‘Moral Disarmament: First Results of the Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation in the Work of the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments,’ Information Bulletin, 1, no. 4 (1932), 104–6.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932), 15. See also ‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932): 5–9, 7.

Albert Dufour-Feronce to the President of the Committee on Moral Disarmament, 15 April 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA and Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932): 15. See also ‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 7.

Ibid., 15 and LON, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Cooperation, 1932, 24. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 120.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 15 (1932), 705. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 119. On the assembly’s request, see ‘Annex: Assembly Report and Resolutions on the Work of the International Committee of Intellectual Co-operation,’ Information Bulletin 1 nos. 5–6 (1932): 180–4, and ‘Annex 2: Report on Intellectual Co-operation Adopted by the Fourteenth Session of the Assembly of the League of Nations, League of Nations,’ Information Bulletin 1, nos. 15–16 (1933): 444–7.

Standislas Stronski, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932): 16–9, 18, and Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 105–6.

‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 7, and Marjan Szumlakowski, ‘Report Submitted by M. Szumlakowski on Behalf of the Sub-committee Appointed for the Examination of Questions Relating to Education, Co-operation of the Intellectual World, Broadcasting and the Cinematograph,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932): 49–52. See also Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932), 16 and Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 105.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 105, and Szumlakowski, ‘Report Submitted by M. Szumlakowski,’ 50. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 124.

Stronski, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ 17. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 22.

Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 122.

Cassin, ‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation,’ 20–3.

Montenach to Shotwell, 25 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

‘Draft Text Submitted by the Sub-committee as a Basis of Discussion,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932): 52–7, 52–3. For the relevant statement in the OIC’s preamble, see Information Bulletin 1, no. 1, 16.

Cassin, ‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation,’ 28–9.

‘Draft Text Submitted by the Sub-committee as a Basis of Discussion,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 53–4. On the content of the articles in regard to education included in the OIC’s draft text, see Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 16 (1932), 771–2.

‘Draft Text Submitted by the Sub-committee as a Basis of Discussion,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 54–6. See also ‘Moral Disarmament,’ and ‘Broadcasting and Peace,’ in LON, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933 (Paris: IIIC, 1934), 33–6, 42–51. The conclusions of the Committee on Moral Disarmament were in agreement with those of the OIC’s Committee of Experts on Broadcasting and Peace. See also Reynold, preface to LON, ICO, National Committees on Intellectual Co-operation, 13.

‘Moral Disarmament,’ in LON, Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 25, and ‘Annex 2: The International Committee for Intellectual Cooperation and Moral Disarmament, Extracts from the Minutes of the Fourteenth Plenary Session of the ICIC, Geneva, 21 July 1932,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 132–8, 132.

Hoetzsch, ‘Remarks Upon Moral Disarmament from the German Point of View,’ 35, 37. While recognising that it was a worthy goal, Maxim Litvinov stated that until that time an agreement on material disarmament was reached, ‘the Conference ought not to waste its time and energy’ on moral disarmament. Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 123.

Hoetzsch, ‘Remarks Upon Moral Disarmament from the German Point of View,’ 37.

Ibid., 37–9.

Ibid., 39.

Hoetzsch to Bonnet, 23 October 1931, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Hoetzsch, ‘Remarks Upon Moral Disarmament from the German Point of View,’ 39.

Ibid., 40–1. Note that in a letter sent from the French Foreign Ministry, Bonnet was asked by François Brière, press attaché to the French delegation at the Disarmament Conference, for information on IIIC’s work in connection with moral disarmament on behalf of Gaston Strauss who was an advocate at the Court of Appeal and a collaborator of Paul-Boncour, the latter being at this point minister of war and a permanent delegate to the LON. More specifically, Bonnet was asked what the ‘German attitude’ was within the framework of the IIIC and whether it was true that Albert Einstein had resigned from the ICIC. François Brière to Bonnet, 22 October 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. On Brière, see also ‘French Consul Lauds War Step,’ Sarasota-Herald Tribune (Florida), 9 November 1942.

Hoetzsch, ‘Remarks Upon Moral Disarmament from the German Point of View,’ 35.

Déclaration presentée par les délégations des Ḗtats-Unis et du Royaume-Uni qui propose qu’elle soit annexée à la Convention du désarmement, 18 July 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Montenach to James T. Shotwell, 25 November 1932, and James T. Shotwell, Memorandum on ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Annex to Montenach to Bonnet, 18 January 1933, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Bonnet, 20 August 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

LON, IIIC, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 21, and Shotwell to Bonnet, 5 July and 4 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell, Memorandum on ‘Moral Disarmament,’ AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Bonnet, 20 August 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell, Memorandum on ‘Moral Disarmament,’ AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Déclaration presentée par les délegations des Ḗtats-Unis et du Royaume-Uni qui propose qu’elle soit annexée à la Convention du Désarmement, 18 July 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 104–6. See also LON, IIIC, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ LON, Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 25.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 132, and ‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 8. See also Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 106.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 132 and ‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 8.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 132–3. On the natural law basis of moral disarmament, see Ernest Perrier, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 2 (1932): 13–15, 14, and Cassin, ‘Moral Disarmament and Intellectual Co-operation,’ 21–2.

‘Note,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 5 (1931): 209–11, and ‘L’Institut de Coopération Intellectuelle et la réorganisation de la instruction publique en Chine,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 5 (1931): 213–4.

Carl Heinrich Becker, Marian Falski, Paul Langevin, and Richard H. Tawney, The Reorganisation of Education in China (Paris: IIIC, 1932), 11. See also Henri Bonnet, L’œuvre de L’Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle (Paris: Recueil Sirey, 1938), 33.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 5 (1931), 213–4, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 11.

League of Nations [hereafter LON], Official Journal [hereafter OJ] 12, no. 7 (1931), 1082–3. See also Felix Morley, The Society of Nations: Its Organization and Constitutional Development (New York: Brookings Institution, 1931), 318.

LON, ICIC, Minutes of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, 20–25 July 1931, 42–3, C.471.M.201.1931.XII, Fourth Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1931 (avant la Conférence), AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA.

LON, International Intellectual Cooperation, 1932 (Paris: IIIC, 1933), 44.

LON, ICIC, Minutes of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, 20–25 July 1931, 43, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA.

LON, ICIC, Minutes of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, 20–25 July 1931, 43, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA.

‘The Re-organisation of Education in China: The League’s Mission of Experts,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932): 9–11, 9, and ‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933 (Paris: IIIC, 1934), 62–6. In the spring of 1932, arrangements began to be made for a corresponding visit of Chinese scholars to Western countries. See also Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 5 (1931), 209, 214.

‘Pour la réorganisation de l’instruction publique en Chine,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932): 577–86, 577, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 12.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 578, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 12.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 578, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 12.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 579, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 12. The mission also visited rural schools in this province.

Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 579–80, and Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 13.

Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 13, and Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 579.

‘China and the IIEC,’ International Review of Educational Cinematography 4, no. 1, 1932, 49–50; Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 12; and ‘Note,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 573–5.

International Review of Educational Cinematography 4, no. 1, 1932, 49; ‘The Chinese Committee of the IIEC,’ International Review of Educational Cinematography 4, no. 6 (1932): 467–8; and Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 580–1.

LON, ICIC, Minutes of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, 20–25 July 1931, 42–3, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA. 42–43.

Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 13, and Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932), 579.

‘Annex 1: Resolutions, Fourteenth Plenary Session of the International Commission of Intellectual Co-operation,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 124. On the report’s finalisation, see LON, IIIC, International Intellectual Cooperation, 1932, 41.

Ibid., 20.

Ibid., 20–1.

Ibid., 20, 23.

Ibid., 24–5.

Ibid., 24, 26, 29.

‘Educational Reform in China: American Comments on the Report of the League of Nations Mission,’ Information Bulletin 1, nos. 9–10 (1933): 281–8, 281, and ‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 51.

Information Bulletin 1, nos. 9–10 (1933), 284. See also Stephen P. Duggan, A Critique of the Report of the League of Nations Mission of Educational Experts to China (New York: International Institute of Education, 1933).

Becker et al., The Reorganisation of Education in China, 28–9, and ‘Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, Intellectual Co-operation, 1934 (Paris: IIIC, 1935), 64–5 and ‘Fifteenth Session of the International Committee of Intellectual Co-operation: The Objective Study of International Relations,’ Information Bulletin 1, nos. 13–14 (1933): 347–80, 372.

Gilbert Murray. ‘Messages,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932): 3 and ‘The Re-organisation of Education in China: The League’s Mission of Experts,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 1 (1932): 9–11.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 51. See also William F. Russell, ‘A Review: The League of Nations Mission of Educational Experts: The Reorganisation of Education,’ Teachers College Record 36, no. 3 (1933): 449–58.

‘Work of the National Committees of Intellectual Co-operation: The American National Committee,’ Intellectual Co-operation: Monthly Bulletin, 2, no. 1 (1934): 61–5. The Committee on Problems and Plans considered Duggan’s and William F. Russell’s Criticisms on 1 April 1933. Intellectual Co-operation: Monthly Bulletin was published under the auspices of the IIIC of the LON.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 52. See also ‘Mr. Y. C. James Yen’s Views on the League Mission’s Report,’ Information Bulletin 1, nos. 9–10 (1933): 288–94.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 52, and ‘Annual Review of International Co-operation,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 5–6 (1932): 145–9, 146. The minister of public education in Nanjing wrote to Bonnet in order to tell him that his government was in ‘absolute agreement as to the success of the work accomplished by the Mission.’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 107.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 5–6 (1932), 146–7, and Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 107.

Ibid., 152.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 52–3, and Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Commission Nationale Chinoise de Coopération Intellectuelle (Shanghai: Commission Nationale Chinoise de Coopération Intellectuelle, 1937), 8–11. The members of the Chinese Education Mission were as follows: Cheng Chi-Pao, director of the College of Education College at Nanjing; Li Shi Mou, director of the College of Engineering, National Cheklang University, Hangzhou; Kuo You Shou, director of Higher Education at the Ministry of Education at Nanjing; Lee Chia Hsiang of Jena and Heidelberg Universities; and Yang Lien, a professor at the National Beijing University. The first three of these members of the mission would later join the ministry of national education. Yang would become Commissioner for Education in the province of Ngan-houei (Anhui).

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 53.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 62.

Bonnet to Shotwell, 2 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Bonnet to Shotwell, 3 February 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Bonnet to Shotwell, 2 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 60, and Shotwell to Bonnet, 16 December 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA, and Intellectual Cooperation: Monthly Bulletin 2, no. 1 (1934), 65.

‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 60.

‘La Coopération Intellectuelle et la Chine,’ Bulletin de la Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 13 (1932): 585–6, and Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Commission Nationale Chinoise de Coopération Intellectuelle, 3–5.

‘Executive Committee of the I.C.I.C., Eighth Session, Paris, December, 17–18, 1932: Welcome to M. Li Yu Ying,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 7 (1932): 191, and ‘Relations with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 61.

Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle, Commission Nationale Chinoise de Coopération Intellectuelle, 3; ‘Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1934, 63; and ‘Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1935 (Paris: IIIC, 1936), 39.

‘Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Intellectual Co-operation, 1934, 61.

Ibid. See also ‘Discussion of the Statement Made by Maurette at the XVth Session of the I.C.I.C,’ Intellectuel Coopération: Monthly Bulletin 2, no. 10–12 (1934): 360, and ‘Collaboration of the Intellectual Co-operation Organisation with the Chinese Government,’ in LON, International Institute on Intellectual Co-operation, 1935, 36–9.

LON, ICO, The National Committees on Intellectual Co-operation, 39–45.

LON, ICIC, Minutes of the Thirteenth Session, Geneva, 20–25 July 1931, 43, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA.

‘Intellectual Cooperation and Moral Disarmament: Extracts from the Minutes of the Fourteenth Plenary Session of the I.C.I.C, held at Geneva from 18 to 23 July 1932,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 73–80, 75–6. On Langevin’s participation in the 1931 IPR conference, see Bruno Lasker and William L. Holland, eds., Problems of the Pacific 1931: Proceedings of the Fourth Conference of the Institute of Pacific Relations, Hangchow and Shanghai, China, October 21 to November 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1932), 508.

Ibid.

Kung-yang Commentary, quoted in Tsai Yuan Pei, ‘To Mr. Gilbert Murray,’ in  LON, A League of Minds: Letters of Henri Focillon, Salvador de Madariaga, Gilbert Murray, Miguel Ozorio de Almeida, Alfonso Reyes, Tsai Yuan Pei, Paul Valéry, An International Series of Open Letters (Paris: IIIC, 1933), 89–90. See also ‘The Open Letter Series: “A League of Minds”,’ Information Bulletin 1, nos. 9–10 (1933): 274–80.

Ibid., 79.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932), 135–6; ‘À la Commission internationale de la Coopération intellectuelle: Le désarmament moral devant la C.I.C.I,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 20–21 (1932): 1086–102, 1095–6; and Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 124.

Montenach to Shotwell, 25 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also LON, ‘Moral Disarmament,’ Intellectual Co-operation: 1932, 25, and ‘Introductory Note,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 3, no. 1 (1932), 8–9.

Shotwell to Montenach, 27 December 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Bonnet, 4 November 1932, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1 November 1932–31 January 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.g, UA, and Shotwell to Bonnet, 4 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Ibid.

Shotwell to Montenach, 27 December 1932, and Shotwell, Memorandum on ‘Moral Disarmament,’ AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Bonnet 4 November 1932, and Shotwell to Montenach, 27 December 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. The secretary of the United States Department of the Interior, Ray Lyman Wilbur, communicated to Mary E. Woolley, the president of Mount Holyoke College and the American representative on the Moral Disarmament Committee, on 27 June the following: that the department was ‘sympathetic’ to the program of moral disarmament as far as its ‘general principles’ were concerned, although he pointed out that the Federal government had no ‘centralized control’ of education. Wilbur stated that the draft text and that it looked ‘promising.’ He added that the department would be ‘gone over carefully’ by the Office of Education and that it was ‘watching everything that you do with the keenest of interest.’ See Moral Disarmament: Message from the Department of the Interior, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA. See also ‘The Study of International Relations in the Public Schools of the United States of America,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 4, no. 2 (1933), 153–4.

Montenach to Shotwell, 25 November 1932 and Montenach to Bonnet, 18 January 1933, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Montenach to Bonnet, 18 January 1933, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Montenach, 27 December 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Shotwell to Bonnet, 4 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.g, UA, and Shotwell to Bonnet, 4 November 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Suzanne Grinsberg, ‘The Inter-Allied Conference in Paris,’ International Woman Suffrage News, May 1919, in Sybil Oldfield, ed. International Woman Suffrage: Ius Suffragii, 1913–1920, October 1918–September 1920, vol. 14 (London: Routledge, 2003), 104–5. See also The International Woman Suffrage Alliance: Report of the Eighth Congress, Geneva, Switzerland, June 6–12, 1920 (Manchester: Percy Brothers, 1920).

Committee on Moral Disarmament, 1933, quoted in Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 125.

Ibid., and Montenach to Bonnet, 2 and 17 June 1933, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Montenach to Bonnet, 2 and 17 June 1933, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

‘Extracts from the Report of the Committee on the Work of Its Fifteenth Plenary Session,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 4, no. 2 (1933): 178–9, and Gilbert Murray, ‘Letter from Professor Gilbert Murray, Chairman of the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation to M. Komarnicki, Rapporteur to the Moral Disarmament Committee of the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments, Geneva, July 22nd, 1933,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 4, no. 2 (1933): 217–8.

ICIC, ‘Proposals of the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation Regarding the Preliminary Draft Texts Concerning Moral Disarmament,’ 218–9, and Avant project de textes concernant le désarmement moral qui pourraitent être inserés dans la Convention Générale pour les Limitations des Armements, soumis par le rapporteur, M. Komarnicki, aux membres du Comité de Redaction, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Avant project de textes concernant le désarmement moral qui pourraitent être inserés dans la Convention Générale pour les Limitations des Armements, soumis par le rapporteur, M. Komarnicki, aux membres du Comité de Redaction, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Murray, ‘Letter from Professor Gilbert Murray, Chairman of the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation to M. Komarnicki,’ and ICIC, ‘Proposals of the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation Regarding the Preliminary Draft Texts Concerning Moral Disarmament,’ 217–9.

Margery Corbett Ashby, ‘Letter Addressed to the President of the Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments by the Chairman of the Committee for Moral Disarmament on December 1st, 1933,’ League of Nations Educational Survey 4, no. 2 (1933): 220–222, and Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 126.

Ashby, ‘Letter Addressed to the President of the Conference,’ 220, and ‘Moral Disarmament,’ LON, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 35.

‘Moral Disarmament,’ LON, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 35.

Ashby, ‘Letter Addressed to the President of the Conference,’ 220. See also, Annexe: Resolutions adoptée par le Comité le 2 juin 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA, and LON, Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments, July 1936, 145. Pella submitted the text of a preamble and three draft articles. These provided the following: the contracting parties should introduce legislation enabling them to punish certain acts detrimental to good international relations. The acts to be covered by this legislation would include the preparation and execution of in the territory of a State of measures directed against the safety of a foreign Power, efforts to induce a State commit certain specified acts in violation of its international obligations the aiding or abetting of armed bands formed in the territory of a State and invading the territory of another State, the dissemination of false information likely to disturb relation or the false attribution to a foreign State of actions likely to bring it into public contempt or hatred.’ LON, Conference for the Reduction and Limitation of Armaments, July 1936, 144–5.

‘L’Assembée de la S.D.N. reconnaît et sanctionne les progrès de la Coopération Intellectuelle,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 34–35 (1933): 565–6, and Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 34–35 (1933), 575–6.

‘Moral Disarmament,’ LON, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 33–5. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 127.

Zygmunt Cybichowski, President of the Central Committee of Polish Institutions of Political Science, to Werner Picht, 20 January 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Alfredo Rocco to Picht, 15 February 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA. The IIIC suggested Rome for the next conference and that it be held in May. However, Rocco informed Picht that Rome was a practical impossibility and that he would seek to organise a convocation in Milan instead.

The contribution of Benito Mussolini and Giovanni Gentile to the Enciclopedia Italiana in 1932 stated the following: ‘[A]ll doctrines which postulate peace at all costs are incompatible with Fascism. Equally foreign to the spirit of Fascism, even if accepted as useful in meeting special political situations—are all internationalistic or League superstructures which, as history shows, crumble to the ground whenever the heart of nations is deeply stirred by sentimental, idealistic or practical considerations. Fascism carries this anti-pacifistic attitude into the life of the individual…The Fascist accepts and loves life; he rejects and despises suicide as cowardly. Life as he understands it means duty, elevation, conquest.’ Benito Mussolini, ‘The Ideology of the Twentieth Century,’ in Roger Griffin, ed., International Fascism: Theories, Causes and the New Consensus (London: Arnold, 1998), 250. Reprinted from Benito Mussolini, Fascism: Doctrine and Institutions (Rome: Ardita, 1935), 7–22. Mussolini had earlier stated the following: ‘Imperialism is the eternal and immutable law of life. At bottom it is but the need, the desire, and the will for expansion which every living, healthy individual or people has in itself.’ Mussolini, 1919, quoted in Herbert W. Schneider, Making the Fascist State (New York: Oxford University Press, 1928), 273.

Frank M. Russell, Theories of International Relations (New York: D. Appleton-Century, 1936), 496. Russell noted that this view of the LON was expressed by Cesare Salvati in Critica Fascista, 15 September 1926.

Ibid., 871. For the Istituto nazionale fascista di cultura, see Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, publications (préparation): Répertoire des institutions pour l’études scientifique des relations internationales, 4 October 1929–2 November 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-II-1, UA. See also Guido Bonsaver, Censorship and Literature in Fascist Italy (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007), 59; Christopher Rundle, Publishing Translations in Fascist Italy (Bern: Peter Lang, 2010), 27; and Ruth Ben Ghiat, Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922–1945 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 21. For an example of Gentile’s theoretical writings on Fascism, see Giovanni Gentile, ‘The Philosophic Basis of Fascism,’ Foreign Affairs 6, no. 2 (1928): 291–304.

Charles André, L’Organisation de la Coopération Intellectuelle (Rennes: Imprimerie Provinçale de l’Ouest, 1938), 150. Pierre Widmer states that the Italian government’s proposal was ‘on the initiative of Vittorio Scialoja, the well-known romanist.’ Pierre Widmer, ‘The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law: Shipyard for World-Wide Unification of Private Law,’ European Journal of Law Reform 1, no. 3 (1999): 181–92, 181. For Scialoja’s speech at the inauguration of the IIIC, see IICI, Travaux de l’Institut de Coopération Intellectuelle pendant la année 1926 (Paris: Presses universitaires de France, 1927), 7. For the French offer concerning the IIIC, see Hsu Fu Teh, L’acitvité de la Société des Nations dans le domaine intellectuel (Paris: Marcel Rivière, 1929), 53–4, 61.

Widmer, ‘The International Institute for the Unification of Private,’ 181.

Benito Mussolini, 1928, quoted in Widmer, ‘The International Institute for the Unification of Private Law,’ 181.

The League of Nations from Year to Year (October 1926–October 1927) (Geneva: Information Section, League of Nations, 1927), 103. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 33–4.

Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 34. See also the ‘Lettre du Gouvernement Italien au Secrétariat-Général de la Société des Nations, Rome le 11 février, 1928,’ Bulletin de la Section d’Information and de Documentation no. 19 (1928), 3. This bulletin was published under the auspices of the SDN and the IICI.

H. R. G. Greaves, The League Committees and World Order (London: Oxford University Press, 1931), 124. See also George Oprescu, ‘Souvenir de la Ligue des Nations,’ Revue Romaine de l’Études Internationales 6 (1969): 61–74, 67. Charles André points out that the institute became ‘integral part’ of the ICO in light of an assembly resolution of 24 September 1931. André, L’Organisation de la Coopérational Intellectuelle, 148.

Oprescu, ‘Souvenir de la Ligue des Nations,’ 67, and ‘Sir Eric Drummond in Rome,’ International Review of Educational Cinematography (December 1929): 689–92. On the Italian Government’s determination to provide the LON’s cinematic institute with premises of equal prestige to the Palais Royal, see Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 34. For the statute of the IIEC, see ‘Projet de Statut Organique (Extraits),’ Bulletin de la Section d’Information and de Documentation no. 19 (1928), 3–4.

LON, ICO, National Committees on Intellectual Co-operation, 73. See also ‘Notes et communications: Commission nationale italienne de la coopération intellectuelle,’ La Coopération Intellectuelle 1, no. 3 (1929): 173–5. According to the constitution of the Italian national committee on intellectual cooperation, the members of the committee were appointed by royal decree on the proposal of the ministry of education with the approval of the ministry of foreign affairs. The first appointments were made on 8 October 1928.

For Gentile’s role, see Rocco to Julien Luchaire, 8 June 1929, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, publications (préparation): Lexique des termes politiques, 1929–1933, AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA, and Fergus Chalmers Wright to Giovanni Gentile, 28 October 1932, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 27 May–31 October 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.f, UA. See also ‘Giuseppe Righetti,’  Coopération Intellectuelle, nos. 73–74 (1937): 1–2. According to the obituary of Giuseppe Righetti appearing in Coopération Intellectuelle in 1937, between 1919 and 1925, Righetti took part in diverse national and international commissions relating to the treaties of the peace. In 1925 and 1927, he served in the office of the two successive Italian under-secretaries-general of the LON: Bernardo Attolico, and Giacomo Paulucci di Calboli, the latter having been a personal assistant to Mussolini. It was Rocco who appointed Righetti secretary-general of the Italian National Committee for Intellectual Co-operation at the end of his tenure in Geneva. It was Rocco and Righetti above all, who were responsible for the development of this committee. Righetti also served as a member of the Italian Chamber of Deputies. Elisabetta Tollardo states that Righetti joined the office of the under secretary-general in 1924. She notes that ‘according to the French diplomatic service, Righetti was the head of a Fascist surveillance service at the LON and at the ILO: he was spying on anti-Fascist activities of the Italian civil servants in Geneva.’ Tollardo points out that Righetti left the secretariat on 10 September 1927 following ‘disagreements’ with Paulucci and that he was appointed as secretary-general of the International Institute for the Unification of Private Law in 1934. Elisabetta Tollardo, Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935 (London: Palgrave Macmillan 2016), 124.

Rocco to Bonnet, 2 March 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Bonnet to Shotwell, 3 February, and 7 March 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA. See also LON, A Record of a First International Study Conference on the State and Economic Life with Special Reference to International Economic and Political Relations, Held at Milan on May 23–27 1932 and Organised by the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation in Collaboration with the Italian National Committee of Intellectual Co-operation (Paris: IIIC, 1932), xiii.

Picht to Hugh Dalton, 9 May 1932, Conférence des Institutions pour l’études scientifique internationales: 1 April–27 May 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.e, UA. ‘Les participants à la Conférence,’ Coopération Intellectuelle, no. 17–18 (1932): 898–901. Hugh Dalton was a former under-secretary of state at the ministry of foreign affairs.

Ibid., 3.

Ibid., 3–4.

Ibid., 5–6.

According to John Bell Condliffe, an economist who served as research secretary at the International Secretariat of the IPR in Honolulu from 1927 to 1931, Moritz Bonn had ‘very close contact’ with the German government and business circles up until 1933 and was noted for his ‘philosophical detachment’. J. B. Condliffe to Tracey Barrett Kittredge, 19 May 1938, Conférence des hautes études internationales, Geneva Research Centre, correspondence as far as 1 June 1939, AG 1-IICI-K-I-16.a, UA. For Bonn’s professional positions and his political alignment, see Steven D. Korenblat, ‘A School for the Republic? Cosmopolitans and Their Enemies at the Deutsche Hochschule für Politik,’ Central European History 39, no. 3 (2006): 394–430, 400.

Ibid., 17.

Ibid., 19.

Ibid., 17, 19.

Ibid., 24, 27. For Alberto De Stefani’s background, see Giuseppe Righetti to Picht, 1 March 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Ibid., 31.

Ibid., 38.

Ibid., 97.

Ibid., 97, 165.

Ibid., 165.

Ibid., 98.

Ibid., 99, and LON: Sixth International Studies Conference, A Record of a Second Study Conference on the State and Economic Life Held in London from May 29 to June 2 1933 and Organised by the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation in Collaboration with the British Co-ordinating Committee for International Studies (Paris: IIIC, 1934), 192. See also Joseph Paul-Boncour, Le fédéralisme économique (Paris: F.Alcan, 1901),  and William H. George, ‘Proudhon and Economic Federalism,’ Journal of Political Economy 30, no. 4 (1922): 531–42.

Ibid., 98–9, 102, 107–110. IICI, L’Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946 (Paris: IICI, 1946), 262. The Milan Conference resolved in the end that the Italian members should prepare such a study. It was later reported that the ‘question of the State and economic life had more especially given rise to a controversy between the Italian representatives who were in favour of the corporative State, and various members of the Conference.’ See ‘International Studies Conference,’ Intellectual Co-operation: Monthly Bulletin 2, no. 8–9 (1934): 270–1.

Ibid., 183.

Sir Eric Drummond quoted in Albert Dufour-Feronce to Murray, 11 June 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.f, UA. On Shotwell’s status at the conference, see LON, A Record of a First International Study Conference on the State and Economic Life, 177.

Picht to Ivison S. Macadam, 19 March 1933, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales: 1 February–31 March 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.h, UA.

IICI, L’Institut de la Coopération Intellectuelle 1925–1946, 300. See also Kolasa, International Intellectual Co-operation, 95.

Paul Mantoux to Picht, 12 July 1932, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

‘The Study of International Relations: Professor Shotwell’s Proposals,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 108–9, and ‘Annex 3: The Study of International Relations; Introductory Note Submitted by Professor James Shotwell to the International Committee on Intellectual Co-operation,’ Information Bulletin 1, no. 4 (1932): 139–40.

Shotwell to Bonnet, 20 August 1932, AG 1-IICI-B-V-9, UA.

Ibid., 20.

Anne Hallsten-Kallia to Picht, 3 November 1930, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales 1930, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.1, UA. See also IIIC, The International Studies Conference: Origins, Functions, Organisation, (Paris: IIIC, 1937), 62. This booklet was compiled by Fergus Chalmers Wright. 

Alfred E. Zimmern to Bonnet, 4 April 1931, and Montenach to Bonnet, 27 April 1931, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA. The members of the Mixed Committee representing the CISSIR at Copenhagen were the following: the Danish historian and foreign minister Peter Munch (chairman), Edward C. Carter (replacing Earle B. Babcock), and Louis Eisenmann, a professor of history in the Faculty of Letters at the University of Paris. The Representatives of the Sub-committee were Professor Giuseppe Gallavresi, Professor Wihelm Schellberg and Alfred E. Zimmern. Picht and two representatives of the LON secretariat, namely, Gustave Gérard Kullmann (who gave the Burge Memorial Lecture in 1933 under the heading of Youth and Moral Disarmament) and Anne Hallsten-Kallia were also present. See Delegation of the Sub-committee of Experts for the Instruction of Youth in the Aims of the League of Nations: Report by M. Gallavresi on the Work of the Joint Committee of the Representatives of the Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations and of the Sub-committee of Experts, 1. Quartrième Conférence des institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1931 (aprés la Conférence), AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.v, UA. Zimmern himself had already been planning a conference of teachers of international relations at the Geneva School of International Studies since before Copenhagen. The school hosted the first of several of these in September 1931. See the note by Margaret E. Cleeve, Secretary of the Library and Publications at the RIIA, 26 June 1931, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA.

Delegation of the Sub-committee of Experts for the Instruction of Youth in the Aims of the League of Nations: Report by M. Gallavresi on the Work of the Joint Committee of the Representatives of the Conference of Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations and of the Sub-committee of Experts, Quartrième Conférence des institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1931 (aprés la Conférence), AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.c, UA.

Memorandum Concerning an Enquiry into the Various Activities of the Institutions for the Scientific Study of International Relations in so Far as They Tend to Impart a Knowledge of the League of Nations (Geneva: LON, 14 January 1932), AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.d, UA. See also Helen McCarthy, The British People and the League of Nations: Democracy, Citizenship and Internationalism, c. 1918–45 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2011), 109.

League of Nations, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 64.

LON, IIIC, International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1933, 65.

For the date of publication, see Cleeve to Picht, 29 March 1933, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales, 1 February–31 March 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-, UA. The BCCIS reported that the meeting discussed the ‘possibilities of taking action in connection with suggestions put forward in…[Bailey’s]…Report,’ Reports on activities from the British Co-ordinating Committee for International Studies, 1930–1934, AG 1-IICI-K-VI-1, UA.

Ibid., xii–xiii.

Ibid., 8–9.

Ibid., 3.

Information Bulletin 1, no. 2–3 (1932), 60. See also LON, ‘The Scientific Study of International Relations (Milan Conference),’ International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation, 1932, 33. Note that Rothbarth was a firm supporter of the lexicon project because as a frequent participant in international conferences, she was conscious ‘of the importance of foreign languages.’ Lemke, ‘“La femme, la clandestine de l’histoire” Margarete Rothbarth—ein Engagement für den Völkerbund,’ 50.

Première réunion internationales des comités des rédaction pour le lexique politique, 30 January 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA. It was expected that the lexicon would run to 900 pages. Massimo Pilotti was early associated with the ICO. In a publication dated 15 July 1927, the IIIC announced the following: ‘M. Massimo Pilotti, Italian legal adviser to the Reparations Commission and to the Ambassadors Conference [of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers]’ has been ‘appointed Italian delegate to the International Institute [of Intellectual Cooperation.’ ‘Appointments,’ Bulletin of the Section of Information and Reference, nos. 9–10 (1927), 2. See also  Gentile to Bonnet, 9 May 1930, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, 1930, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.a, UA; Righetti to Wilhelm Hass, 21 May 1931, AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA; and Gentile to Picht, 1 May 1931, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.b, UA. Gentile sent Pilotti on his behalf to attend the 1930 CISSIR in Paris. Presumably, it was in light of Pilotti’s appointment to the position of under secretary-general that Giannino Ferrari dalle Spade replaced Pilotti on the committee overseeing the lexicon project and attended the CISSIR’s Copenhagen conference in 1931 in place of Pilotti. The creation of two deputy secretary-general posts resulted from a review of the organisation of the secretariat in 1932. In addition to his role as under secretary-general, Yotaro Sugimura was director of the Political Section of the secretariat. Considered a LON loyalist, when Japan withdrew from the LON, Sugimara was forced to resign. F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1952), 557–8. Frank P. Walters observed that Pilotti was a lawyer ‘of profound learning…[who]… had made his peace with Fascism, but was by temperament utterly opposed to its aggressive and bombastic character. Like other Italian members of the Secretariat, he was watched and spied upon by the numerous Fascists who frequented Geneva as delegates, consular officers, or propagandists, and who sought to win the approval of the men in power in Rome by parading their dislike for the League. Pilotti did his best to reason with his former chiefs: but he could do little to change their purposes’ (ibid., 558).  For Sugimura, see also Morley, The Society of Nations, 278n. Tollardo notes that Massimo Pilotti’s legal expertise had seen him participate in Italian delegations to a number of important international conferences, including the Disarmament Conference. She notes that he had also been a deputy delegate to the LON. She adds that although Pilotti approached his role as a ‘legal expert’ rather than as a politician, ‘he was asked to put into practice his expertise when the crisis between Italy and the institution peaked as a result of the Italo-Ethiopian conflict’ and that he ‘played a key role in presenting the Italian case during the Ethiopian crisis.’ Tollardo further observes that Pilotti’s ‘approach to the [League] organization and to internationalism was opportunistic and his relationship with Fascism ambiguous.’ Tollardo, Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935,  81–3.

SDN, IICI, Cinquième Session de la Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des Relations Internationales, Milan, 23–25 May 1932: Lexique de termes politiques, liste des termes, and SDN, IICI, Seiziéme session de la Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des Relations Internationales, London 29 May–2 June 1933: Lexique de termes politiques, rapport du directeur de la publication, AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA. Eric D. Weitz notes that the terms Volkstum and Deutschtum conveyed the idea of a a ‘kind of German essence…based on shared “blood”’. Eric D. Weitz, Weimar Germany: Promise and Tragedy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 333.

Haas reported optimistically to the administrative meeting of the CISSIR at its 1933 session that although the German editorial committee would ‘have to undergo a certain change’ in light of recent events he was confident that a new committee would be formed in the near future. SDN, IICI, Seiziéme session de la Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationales, London 29 May–2 June 1933: Lexique de termes politiques, rapport du directeur de la publication, AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA.

Korenblat, ‘A School for the Republic?,’ 395.

Steven D. Korenblat observes that among those who left the DHP following its takeover were ‘some of the most talented scholars of the great intellectual migration of the 1930s’. Korenblat, ‘A School for the Republic?,’ 395.

On the shift away from a gothic type-face in Weimar Germany, see Simon Garfield, Just My Type: A Book About Fonts (London: Profile Books, 2010), 190–1.

The typeface used to display the name Deutsche Hochschule für Politik on the stationery used by Ernst Jäckh in a letter to Picht on 2 November 1929, indicates that the DHP had at first used blackletter before switching to roman text. When such a switch occurred is not clear, especially as the typeface displayed on the DHP’s stationery in a letter sent by Haas to Picht on 6 June 1929, is roman. See AG 1-IICI-K-II-4.b, UA. For a comparison between the typeface used by the DHP in the Weimar period with that used by the DHP following its nazification, see Friedrich (Fritz) Berber to Chalmers Wright, 8 May 1936, Conférence permanente des hautes études internationales: Peaceful Change, March–April 1936–1 June 1936, AG 1-IICI-K-I-15.c, UA.

Edward C. Carter to Picht, 21 April 1933, Conférence des Institutions pour l’étude scientifique des relations internationals, 11 April–14 June 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA.

Hoetzsch to Picht, 24 April 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA.

Hoetzsch to Picht, 18 May 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA. In a paper read at Chatham House in October 1932, Arnold Wolfers argued the following: that ‘despite…[Hitler’s]…anti-democratic tendencies,’ the movement Hitler lead was a mass movement and thus Hitler had developed a stronger awareness of the need for popular support than had the leaders of other conservative groups. Wolfers further argued that Hitler ‘may therefore become a force for making democracy He is fighting to-day against what he believes to be threat of class dictatorship by some small privileged minority, particularly the Junkers…[T]he further we go the more this character of his movement as a safeguard against social reaction is likely to come to the fore.’ Arnold Wolfers, ‘The Crisis of the Democratic Régime in Germany,’ International Affairs 11, no. 6 (1932): 757–782, 769.

Carter to Picht, 21 April 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA.

Arnold Wolfers to Picht, 12 May 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA.

Picht to Hoetzsch, 4 May 1933, AG 1-IICI-K-I-1.i, UA. On the funding of Wolfers’s  position, see IICI, L’Institut International de Coopération Intellectuelle: 1925–1946, 260.