A health-based life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) for cement manufacturing: a comparative study of China and Canada

Life cycle impact assessment methodology was applied to the cement manufacturing sectors in China and Canada for comparative purposes. Primary air emissions of NO _x , SO₂, PM, and CO were evaluated in terms of intensity per tonne of Portland cement and in respect of their contribution to winter smog. The Eco-Indicator 99 impact category for respiratory effects on humans caused by inorganic substances was used as surrogate for winter smog. Impact was assessed in disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), and damage, normalization, and weighting factors followed the egalitarian perspective. Results indicate some ambiguity for emission intensities with China outperforming Canada in NO _x and SO₂ while underperforming in PM and CO. However, in terms of impact to human health, China was more than double that of Canada at 14.2 DALYs per tonne of Portland cement. Highlighted by energy-intensive and trade-exposed industry like cement, environmental performance, and emissions leakage (associated with offshoring production) can have serious ramifications on regional air quality. Modernization and innovation in combination with a strong regulatory framework needs to be implemented in both emerging markets and developed markets to minimize emissions leakage and pollution loading.