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Erschienen in:
The Paradoxical Place of Territory in International Law Kapitel lesen Erstes Kapitel lesen

2017 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

2. A State Without Territory?

verfasst von : Veronika Bílková

Erschienen in: Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2016

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

The chapter considers whether a State can exist without territory. It argues that if the functional theory of territory is accepted, then the concept of a deterritorialized State may indeed be conceivable. The chapter however cautions against embracing this concept hastily, drawing attention to four caveats. First, the functional theory requires solid justification that is so far lacking. It is not so evident that territory is nothing more than a special tool people use and would be ready to abandon. Secondly, even if the theory is accepted, doubts arise as to whether all the traditional functions of territory can, in the current state of affairs, be assumed by a substitute and what this substitute would be. Thirdly, there are no historical ‘precedents’ of deterritorialized States to demonstrate the viability of the concept. Fourthly, other options are available to respond to the problems that the concept of deterritorialized State is supposed to resolve, especially the problem of disappearing States. As long as the concept remains insufficiently developed, these other options may seem preferable.

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Vorheriges Kapitel The Paradoxical Place of Territory in International Law
Nächstes Kapitel Territory in the Law of Jurisdiction: Imagining Alternatives
Fußnoten
1
See D Nolan (2015) Liberland: Hundreds of Thousands Apply to Live in World’s Newest ‘Country’, The Guardian, 24 April 2015, https://​www.​theguardian.​com/​world/​2015/​apr/​24/​liberland-hundreds-of-thousands-apply-to-live-in-worlds-newest-country, accessed 13 May 2016.
 
2
See Stoutenburg 2015.
 
3
Shaw 1982.
 
4
Storey 2001, at 1.
 
5
See Alston 2005, at 3.
 
6
The word probably comes from the combination of terra—earth or land, with the suffix -orium denoting place.
 
7
Storey 2001, at 1.
 
8
Crawford 2006, at 31.
 
9
Jain 2014, at 6.
 
10
1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States, 165 LNTS 19.
 
11
See Grant 1999.
 
12
Badinter Arbitration Commission, Yugoslavia Peace Conference Opinion No 1, 92 ILR 162, 29 November 1991, at 165.
 
13
‘The Commission concluded that no useful purpose would be served by an effort to define the term “State”, though this course had been suggested by the Governments of the United Kingdom and of India. In the Commission's draft, the term “State” is used in the sense commonly accepted in international practice.’ ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1949, Vol II, UN Doc A/CN.4/SER.A/1949, 1949, at 289, para 49.
 
14
ILC, Yearbook of the International Law Commission 1956, Vol II, UN Doc A/CN.4/SER.A/1956/Add.l, 1956, at 107.
 
15
Hall 1924, at 18.
 
16
Scelle 1932, at 74.
 
17
Lawrence 1895, at 59.
 
18
See, for instance, Crawford 2006, at 37–95; and Shaw 2008, at 197–204.
 
19
See Crawford 2012, at 128; Craven 2010, at 220; Grant 1999.
 
20
US Ambassador Jessup, UNSCOR 383rd meeting (2 December 1948), at 11, cit. in Crawford 2006, at 48.
 
21
Higgins 1963, at 34–35.
 
22
See also Mendelson 1972, at 609–630.
 
23
UNGA, Declaration on Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nations, UN Doc. A/RES/25/2625, 24 October 1970.
 
24
In re Duchy of Sealand, Federal Republic of Germany, Administrative Court of Cologne, Case No. 9 K 2565/77, 3 May 1978.
 
25
See also Re Hartmann and Pude, Italy, Constitutional Court, 71 ILR 258, 18 April 1967; United States v Ray, United States Court of Appeals, Fifth Circuit, 51 ILR 225, 1970.
 
26
Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Land (Belgium v Netherlands), ICJ, Judgment, 20 June 1959.
 
27
Wong 2013, at 354.
 
28
Deleuze and Guattari 1972.
 
29
Brölmann 2007, at 92.
 
30
Ibid.
 
31
Mégret 2009; and Michaels 2013. See also Allott 1990.
 
32
Mégret 2009, at 495.
 
33
Crawford 2006, at 45.
 
34
Ibid.
 
35
Grant 1999, at 456.
 
36
Bederman 2010, at 53.
 
37
Kelsen 1941–1942.
 
38
Starke and Shearer 1994, at 85.
 
39
Crawford 2006, at 52.
 
40
Jain 2014, at 18.
 
41
Jain 2014, at 27.
 
42
As Herz notes, the State is ‘an ultimate unit of protection for those within its boundaries’. See Herz 1957, at 474.
 
43
Jain 2014, at 23.
 
44
See Crawford 2006, at 45–46; Shaw 2008, at 487–489.
 
45
The Case of the S.S. Lotus (France v Turkey), PCIJ, Judgment, 7 September 1927, at 18.
 
46
Brölmann 2007, at 85.
 
47
See Ryngaert 2015.
 
48
See Szigeti 2010.
 
49
See Loizidou v Turkey, ECtHR Grand Chamber, Judgment, No. 15318/89, 18 December 1996, para 56; and Ilaşcu and Others v Moldova and Russia, ECtHR Grand Chamber, No. 48787/99, 8 July 2004, para 333.
 
50
Western Sahara, ICJ, Advisory Opinion, 16 October 1975, Separate Opinion of Judge Dillard, at 114. See also Sumner 2004.
 
51
See Knight 1982.
 
52
See Herb and Kaplan 1999.
 
53
See, for instance, Schnapper 2001.
 
54
See Kittel 2014, at 1228.
 
55
As Jain notes, ‘statehood and recognition are two distinct but related facets of the rules of international law that define its primary subjects. In modern international law, statehood is an objective status—if entities meet certain criteria […] Recognition, on the other hand, refers to the political act of acceptance of a state into the international community by states that are already members of the international community’. Jain 2014, at 43.
 
56
Cit. in Mueggenberg 2014, at 186.
 
57
Mueggenberg 2014, at 187–188.
 
58
Crawford 2006, at 56.
 
59
Kiss 1965, at 28, cit. in Talmon 2001, at 78.
 
60
Táborský 1946, at 129. See also Hobza 1922.
 
61
Quigley 2012 (arguing that Palestine has territory and is a State); and Ash 2012 (arguing that Palestine does not have a territory and is not a State).
 
62
According to Talmon, in the course of the twentieth century, some 75 authorities in exile claimed to be governments in exile and in about a half of these cases, they were recognized as such. See Talmon 1999.
 
63
Talmon 1999, at 500.
 
64
See Stoutenburg 2015, at 377.
 
65
As cited in Fischer 1999, at 145.
 
66
Talmon 1999, at 499.
 
67
McAdam 2016.
 
68
Ibid.
 
69
See Mälksoo 2003 and Ziemele 2005.
 
70
Kittel, for instance, argues that ‘the notion of a deterritorialized state is already accepted in international law. Two prominent deterritorialized states—Knights of Malta and the Holy See—are recognized as states despite lacking a defined territory’. Kittel 2014, at 1228; see also Jain 2014, at 44–45.
 
71
Wong 2013, at 357.
 
72
Thome Guadalupe v Associazione Italiana di S. Cecilia, Italy, Court of First Instance of Rome (1945) 8 ILR 151, 27 February 1937.
 
73
See Arangio-Ruiz 1996.
 
74
See Ryngaert 2011 and Morss 2015.
 
75
See D’Olivier 1954 and Cox 2006.
 
76
What is the Sovereign Order of Malta? http://​www.​orderofmalta.​int/​sovereign-order-of-malta/​faq, accessed 4 June 2016.
 
77
Wong 2013, at 357.
 
78
Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, ICJ, Advisory Opinion, 11 April 1949.
 
79
McAdam 2016, at 2.
 
80
See also International Law Association, International Law and Sea Level Rise, Draft Committee Report, ILA 77th Biennial Conference, Johannesburg, South Africa, 7–12 August 2016.
 
81
UN Secretary-General, Climate change and its possible security implications, Report of the Secretary-General, UN Doc. A/64/350, 11 September 2009, para 71.
 
82
See Church et al. 2006.
 
83
For instance in September 2009, the government of Maldives held an underwater Cabinet meeting to manifest the urgency of the problem. See Daily Mail (2009) Maldives government highlights the impact of climate change… by meeting underwater, 20 October 2009, http://​www.​dailymail.​co.​uk/​news/​article-1221021/​Maldives-underwater-cabinet-meeting-held-highlight-impact-climate-change.​html, accessed 6 June 2016.
 
84
B Merchant (2009) First Official Climate Change Refugees Evacuate Their Island Homes for Good, Treehugger, 8 May 2009, http://​www.​treehugger.​com/​corporate-responsibility/​first-official-climate-change-refugees-evacuate-their-island-homes-for-good.​html, accessed 6 June 2016.
 
85
W Flannery (2012) ‘We Can’t Walk on Water’—small island communities, climate change and human rights, Right Now—Human Rights in Australia, 27 August 2012, http://​rightnow.​org.​au/​opinion-3/​%E2%80%9Cwe-can%E2%80%99t-walk-on-water%E2%80%9D-%E2%80%93-small-island-communities-climate-change-and-human-rights/​, accessed 6 June 2016.
 
86
The Independent (2006) Disappearing world: Global warming claims tropical island, 24 December 2006, http://​www.​independent.​co.​uk/​environment/​climate-change/​disappearing-world-global-warming-claims-tropical-island-5331748.​html, accessed 6 June 2016.
 
87
A Ray (2009) Lohachara rises from waters again, The Times of India, 3 April 2009, http://​timesofindia.​indiatimes.​com/​city/​kolkata/​Lohachara-rises-from-waters-again/​articleshow/​4352475.​cms , accessed 6 June 2016.
 
88
1978 Vienna Convention on Succession of States in respect of Treaties, 1946 UNTS 3, Article 1(2)(b).
 
89
Crawford 2006, at 716.
 
90
Jain 2014, at 35.
 
91
1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, 1833 UNTS 3.
 
92
Jain 2014, at 38.
 
93
Jain 2014, at 47–49.
 
94
See Gagain 2007, at 77–120.
 
95
See R Spencer (2011) The World is Sinking: Dubai Islands ‘Falling into the Sea’, The Telegraph, 20 January 2011, http://​www.​telegraph.​co.​uk/​news/​worldnews/​middleeast/​dubai/​8271643/​The-World-is-sinking-Dubai-islands-falling-into-the-sea.​html, accessed 12 May 2016.
 
96
Oliver 2009.
 
97
R Ramesh (2008) Paradise Almost Lost: Maldives Seek to Buy a New Homeland, The Guardian, 10 November 2008, https://​www.​theguardian.​com/​environment/​2008/​nov/​10/​maldives-climate-change, accessed 12 May 2016.
 
98
B Doherty (2012) Climate Change Castaways Consider Move to Australia, The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 January 2012, http://​www.​smh.​com.​au/​environment/​climate-change/​climate-change-castaways-consider-move-to-australia-20120106-1pobf.​html, accessed 12 May 2016.
 
99
Jain 2014, at 49.
 
100
Kittel 2014, at 1237–1250.
 
101
Burkett 2011.
 
102
Ibid., at 361.
 
103
Rayfuse 2009, at 11; and Rayfuse 2011.
 
104
Harman G (2014) Has the great climate change migration already begun? The Guardian, 15 September 2014, https://​www.​theguardian.​com/​vital-signs/​2014/​sep/​15/​climate-change-refugees-un-storms-natural-disasters-sea-levels-environment, accessed 12 May 2016.
 
105
As cited in Certain Phosphate Lands in Nauru (Nauru v Australia), ICJ, Preliminary Objections of the Government of Australia, December 1990, para 60.
 
106
Kittel 2014, at 1228.
 
107
Burkett 2011, at 346.
 
108
See Crawford 2006, at 715; Burkett 2011, at 354; Jain 2014, at 28; Kittel 2014, at 1220; McAdam 2016, at 6; Wong 2013, at 360.
 
109
Kittel 2014, at 1220.
 
110
See Burkett 2011, at 362.
 
111
Jain 2014, at 24.
 
112
Ibid., at 24–25.
 
113
Jain 2014, at 25.
 
114
See, for instance, Basso 1996, at 86.
 
115
The so-called Principality of Sealand was established in September 1967 by the UK citizen Roy Bates on Roughs Tower, an offshore platform located in the North Sea, off the coast of Suffolk, the UK. See the ‘official’ website of the Principality at http://​www.​sealandgov.​org/​, accessed 4 June 2016.
 
116
The so-called Kingdom of North Sudan was established by the US citizen Jeremiah Heaton in June 2014 in an uninhabited and unclaimed area (around 2000 km2) on the borders between Egypt and Sudan. See the ‘official’ website of the Kingdom at https://​kingdomsudan.​org/​, accessed 4 June 2016.
 
117
The so-called Liberland was established by the Czech Republic’s citizen Vít Jedlička in April 2015 in the area called Gornja Siga (around 6,5 km2) at the borders between Croatia and Serbia. See the ‘official’ website of Liberland at https://​liberland.​org/​en/​main/​, accessed 4 June 2016.
 
118
Dennis 2002; Lyon 2015; Rossman 2016.
 
119
Lyon 2015, at 663–670.
 
120
Rossman 2016, at 329–330.
 
121
Dennis 2002, at 296.
 
122
Klabbers 2013, at 70.
 
123
Jain 2014, at 26.
 
124
Ibid., at 27.
 
125
Kittel 2014, at 1237–1250.
 
126
Marek 1968, at 588.
 
127
Harrington 2016, at 67.
 
128
Burkett 2011, at 346.
 
129
Sterio 2011, at 211.
 
130
Henkin 1995, at 13.
 
131
Sassen 2006.
 
132
See, for instance, Nevola 2011.
 
133
Basso 1996, at 86.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
A State Without Territory?
verfasst von
Veronika Bílková
Copyright-Jahr
2017
Buch
Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 2016

Print ISBN: 978-94-6265-206-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-94-6265-207-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2017

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-207-1_2