14.1 Introduction
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Adaptation is an adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities (IPCC 2014b).
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Adaptive capacity is the ability of systems, institutions, humans, and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences of climate change (IPCC 2014b).
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Food security exists when all people at all times have physical or economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO 2008).
14.2 Approach
14.2.1 The Intervention
14.2.2 The Monitoring and Evaluation Approach and Technique
Key elements of M&E plans | Burkina Faso | Ghana | Niger |
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Intentional domains of changes | D1: Partnership | D1: Partnership | D1: Partnership |
D2: Knowledge | D2: Knowledge | D2: Knowledge | |
D3: Practices | D3: Practices | D3: Food security | |
D4: Organization | D4: Food security | ||
Behavioural changes collection methods | Focus group and Individual discussion | Focus group and Individual discussion | Focus group and Individual discussion |
Types of behavioural change to collect | Individual and collective behaviours | Individual and collectives behaviours | Individual and collective behaviours |
Technique for selecting most significant changes | Iterative voting | Iterative voting | Iterative voting |
Number of stories of changes collected (experimental) | 2 collective changes (men and women) | 2 collective changes (men and women) | 2 collective changes (men and women) |
34 individual changes (men and women farmers) | 12 individual changes (men and women farmers) | 16 individual changes (men and women farmers) |
14.3 Analysis
14.3.1 Consistency Between Planned Behavioral Theory and the CCAFS Program’s Objectives
14.3.2 Identified Behavioral Changes Induced by the CCAFS Program in West Africa
Domains of changes/characteristics | Burkina Faso | Ghana | Niger | |||
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Men | Women | Men | Women | Men | Women | |
1. Changes in knowledge
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Knowledge about agricultural techniques (relationships between climate change and improved varieties, plowing flat and row planting, compost preparation, etc.) | 84.21 | 60.00 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 100 |
Knowledge about implementing on-farm assisted natural regeneration techniques | 57.89 | 46.67 |
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| 100 | 100 |
Knowledge of trees (planting and utilization) | 36.84 | 62.50 | 33.33 | 33.33 | 10 | 16.67 |
2. Changes in agricultural practices
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Agricultural practices (use of improved seeds, row planting, compost application, fertilizer use, etc.) | 57.89 | 73.33 | 100 | 100 | 100 | 83.33 |
Practicing on-farm assisted natural regeneration of trees (associated with anti-erosion sites) | 5.26 | 13.33 | 33.33 | 33.33 | 100 | 83.33 |
Planting trees | 26.32 | 40.00 |
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3. Organizational changes
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Relationships among farmers | 36.84 | 6.67 | 16.67 | 16.67 |
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4. Changes in partnering
| 57.89 | 66.67 | 66.67 | 66.67 | 60.00 | 33.33 |
In-community collaboration (exchange of information, services and goods) | 57.89 | 66.67 | 66.67 | 66.67 | 60.00 | 33.33 |
5. Access to productive resources (on-farm trees, etc.)
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Access to on-farm and medicinal trees | 31.58 | 80.00 |
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| 16.67 |
6. Changes in food security
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Diversity of diets and early harvests from early maturing crops |
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| 13.33 | 50.00 |
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| 83.33 |
Total surveyed sample
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19
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15
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6
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6
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10
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6
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14.3.3 Learning Opportunities from Applying Behavioral Changes Theory in Adaption Processes
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Evidence of various new behavior patterns: Stakeholders including researchers and extension officers from both governmental and nongovernmental organizations have learned the existence of a wide range of changes in farmers’ behavior. It was particularly easy for them to identify adaptation-relevant behavior. Furthermore, the most significant change technique allowed farmers to learn how to own the adaptation process and express views about potential barriers to adaptation outcomes or maintaining initiated behavioral changes. It provided opportunities for other farmers to learn about types of changes that are occurring in their community. In this manner it can help remove barriers related to attitude, subjective norms and perceived behavioral control within farmers’ communities and enhance community and other stakeholders’ engagement in the CCAFS program.
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New behavior patterns need maintenance: The results also suggest that initiating new behavior patterns may expose farmers to new challenges. Their stories of change provided researchers with insights into barriers related to assets and/or additional adaptive capacities after the farmers’ initiation of adaptation-relevant behavioral changes. Such insight will facilitate discussion by researchers, farmers and extension officers regarding additional support farmers may require to maintain effective new behavior patterns, and avoid potential reversion to old practices that are considered inappropriate for adaptation to climate change. Furthermore, addressing the additional burdens faced by farmers after they have initiated relevant changes is important to minimize the risk of maladaptation to climate change.
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Developing adaptation-related metrics from behavioral change stories: Characteristics of behavioral changes portrayed in the stories of change could be readily identified, classified, counted, and used in designing metrics that effectively reflect progress towards adaptation. For instance, evidence that farmers have changed their agricultural practices to include assisted natural regeneration of trees on their farmland indicates that the adaptation initiative has contributed to increases in: (i) the area of land under this practice, (ii) the agricultural productivity and production of that land, and (iii) the food security of farm households involved. This is highly significant, because assuring traceability of biophysical outcomes from adaptation activities has been the most controversial aspect of monitoring and evaluating adaptation. Because adaptation takes place in an economic development context, adaptation metrics should not be defined in isolation from changes in farmers’ behavior. Otherwise, there is a high risk of measuring development indicators rather than adaptation indicators. Knowing domains where adaptation-relevant behavioral changes have been initiated and maintained would be helpful for evaluators to trace adaptation components in development outcomes, and reduce risks of confounding adaptation and development effects.