Advanced Materials

In the era of materials technology, a fundamental understanding of microstructure, material properties, and processing techniques is required for the suitable application that blooming the advanced multifunctional materials: shape-memory materials (SMM). The ability to design different specialized subgroups of multifunctional SMM that have stimulating and deflection ability is recognized as active materials. This chapter summarizes the most advanced and active shape-memory materials. Emphasis is placed on the new functionalities of SMM that allow the researcher to investigate with functionalities customized for a remarkable application. SMM fabrication, phase transformation phenomenon, and different influencing parameters have been discussed in this chapter. Various categories of SMM with their emerging applications have been presented here.

This chapter describes the historical background, basic phenomenon associated with the piezoelectric materials. Both direct and inverse piezoelectric effect has been explained with their mechanisms. Various piezoelectric operational constants and parameters have been discussed. Various materials such as ceramic, polymer, metal, and composites in the bulk form as well as in the thin film have been explained with their basic flow diagram. The basic difference between the electrostrictive material which is a material nearly similar to piezoelectric materials has been explained. Various piezoelectric material properties and potential applications in aero-industries, marine industries, automobiles, biomedical, energy harvest, household, and other applications have been described. Various advantages and limitations of piezoelectric materials have been given briefly.

This chapter describes nanomaterials with respect to nanoscience and nanotechnology in the 1–100 nm range. The history gives a wonderful idea of how the gradual development of nanomaterials from ancient age to the current age. This chapter discusses the alteration in properties with the size reduction from bulk scale to nanoscale. Various classes of nanomaterials based on dimension and composition have been described. Different synthesis methods such as gas-, liquid- and solid-phase processes have been discussed for each category of nanomaterials. Nanotechnology network in various fields such as aero industries, automotive and naval industry, electronic industry, medical industries, energy harvest industries, food industries, textile industries, household application, and other industries has been discussed. Current problems and difficulties associated with nanomaterials have been discussed for future developments.

Noncontact sensors and actuators have a very demand in the advanced materials market. Use of magnetostrictive materials in advanced applications has been discussed in this chapter. A brief discussion on magnetostrictive materials has been made from the history to current development. Magnetostrictive sensors construction and working along with the electromagnetic properties and various associated magnetostrictive effects has been discussed here. Specific categories of materials such as iron-based alloys, Ni-based alloys, terfenol-D, metglas, ferromagnetic shape memory alloys, and so on used for magnetostrictive behavior have been discussed. All the potential applications in mechanical industries, aero-industries, automotive industries, biomedical industries, construction industries, energy-harvesting industries have been discussed. All the limitations described in this chapter, which can lead to the further development of magnetostrictive sensors and actuators in future research.

Chromic materials on the surface of any materials are a focus of interest of the entire customer in the market nowadays. This chapter describes the fundamental of chromism in the various materials in various stimulated conditions. The history of chromogenic materials gives the idea of their nomenclature and materials development from ancient times to the current age. Categorization of the chromogenic system shows the various mechanism of chromism. Most applications of the materials such as photochromic, thermochromic, electrochromic materials, and so on, have been discussed with their materials behavior, mechanism, limitations. Hybrid chromic materials showing the integrity of various phenomenons in the materials to change their color are discussed briefly, which needs to be developed a lot in the current future.

This chapter describes the basics of rheology and various kind of rheological materials that are stimulated by electric field or magnetic field or light. Electro-rheological (ER) fluid, magneto-rheological (MR) fluid, ferrofluid, magneto-rheological elastomer, electro-conjugate liquid, photo-rheological fluid has been depicted here. Historical background, mechanism, materials used and synthesis procedure has been discussed in this chapter. Current potential applications based on various rheological materials in leading industries such as aero-industries, automobile and heavy machinery industries, military and defense industries biomedical industries, electronic industries, and other industries have been discussed.

Superalloys are a group of high-temperature advanced material. Many high-end machines and engines rely on superalloys to increase efficiency. These materials are used in high-speed missile propulsion engines to high-temperature chemical industry. This chapter provides a simple historical idea of a gradual increase in the operating temperature of a material with respect to their gradual development in processing routes. The increase in mechanical strength with temperature has been discussed for various superalloys such as Ni-based superalloys, Co-based superalloys, and Fe-based superalloys. Various methods for producing single crystal and polycrystalline superalloys have been described in this chapter. Various applications have been discussed in which superalloys are the only materials involved in improving efficiency.

This chapter gives a brief introduction of one category of high-strength advanced material that is bulk metallic glass. Bulk metallic glass-forming liquids are alloys with typically three to five metallic components that have a large atomic size mismatch and a composition close to a deep eutectic. They are dense liquids with small free volumes and high viscosities that are several orders of magnitude higher than those in pure metals or previously known alloys. All the associated mechanism with the bulk amorphization and their strength at room temperature as well as the elevated temperature has been discussed. Thermodynamics and kinetics of the liquid metal during the formation of the glass phase are clearly depicted here. Various bulk metallic glass, such as metal–metal-type alloys, metal–metalloid-type alloys, pd–metalloid-type alloys, has been discussed along with a different kind of fabrication technique. The application of different kind of bulk metallic glass along with their in-developed properties has been discussed.

For more than 5000 years, metals and alloys have been formed in roughly the same way-propelling civilization from the Bronze Age to the industrial revolution and the advanced materials age. Now there is a new technique on the horizon that could help us take another big leap forward. This chapter describes high entropy materials (HEM) such as high entropy alloys (HEA), high entropy ceramics (HEC), high entropy polymer (HEP), and high entropy hybrids (HEH). These are the new class of materials that can extract strength from its single phase. For better understanding, an extensive description of various associated key concepts and mechanisms of high entropy alloys are described here. Various core effects such as high entropy effect, lattice distortion effect, sluggish diffusion effect, cocktail effect describe the strengthening process of the materials. Liquid-, solid- and gas-state route, electrochemical process, and additive manufacturing provide direction to synthesis the high entropy materials. High-entropy superalloys, high-entropy bulk metallic glasses, high-entropy flexible materials, and high-entropy coatings have been discussed. Various properties of HEA have been discussed with the example of current fabricated multi-materials. Emerging applications, of HEA such as in automobile, aero-vehicle, machinery, nuclear reactors, electrical and electronics, biomedical, and other applications, have been discussed here.

In the current era, the self-healing properties found in some advanced materials have a resemblance with the biological wound healing process. This chapter describes the gradual development of metal, ceramic, polymer, and others in the direction of self-healing at room temperature as well as in high-temperature applications. Various classifications of materials such as autonomic, nonautonomic, intrinsic, and extrinsic processes of self-healing are described with their mechanism. Self-healing polymer is a step ahead of other materials in cent percent healing. Different concepts and thermodynamic approaches of thermoplastic, as well as thermosetting polymer, have been discussed broadly. Applications in aero industries, automobile, electrical and electronics, mechanical, medical, textile, and other industries have been discussed extensively.

Self-cleaning surfaces have attracted significant attention in the scientific and industrial community for their peculiar fundamental aspects. In the current chapter, the fundamental principles of self-cleaning materials are briefly discussed. Fabrication strategies of various self-cleaning materials are described here in detail. The low surface energy materials (silicones, fluorocarbons, organic materials, and inorganic materials) required for superhydrophobic application are discussed extensively with various fabrication techniques, such as electrospinning technique, wet chemical reaction, electrochemical deposition, hydrothermal reaction, lithography, layer-by-layer assembly, plasma treatment, and 3D printing technique. The applications of self-cleaning surfaces are discussed in terms of the equipment used in aero-industries, maritime industry, automobile industries, electronic industries, medical industries, textile industries, and other industries.

Everyone wants the lightest materials to their use. Lighter materials are the most important parameter for a dynamic system. This chapter describes all the types of latest ultralight materials having a density of <10 mg/cm³. Aerogel, aerographite, aerographene, 3D graphene, carbyne, microlattice, and foam come under ultralight material. Classification, fabrication, properties, and applications of each of the ultralight material has been described here extensively.

In modern society, diseases have been increasing in humans as well as domestic animals because of pollution, accident, and lifestyle. The mutilation in the human body leads to expand the need for the replacement of tissues/organs where the availabilities of sources for tissues/organs is limited. Creating artificial tissues/organs for the replacement of damaged, dysfunctional tissues/organs becomes a big discipline in material science. This chapter describes the brief idea on the requirement of materials for implant inside or outside the body, material–body fluid interface, and interactions. The main governing factors associated with choosing the material as a biomaterial have been described. Typically, five classes of biomaterials such as metallic, ceramic, polymeric, composite, and natural biomaterials are discussed with their modification and application in various parts of the body. Synthesis processes and surface modifications have been presented to develop better biocompatible materials.

From high-end sports cars to everyday minivan, plastics have revolutionized not only the automotive industry but also other industries. This chapter gives the idea of advanced plastic materials such as high-temperature plastic, conducting plastic, magnetic plastic, transparent plastic, and bioplastic. Each of these plastic materials is discussed with their subclassification, mechanism, constituting elements, and applications.

Energy is always required in our daily work, from our body movement to moving big industries. Each energy is convertible, that is, energy can change from one form to another while work. This chapter focused on how economically one energy can be converted to electric energy with the utilization of various materials. This chapter gives the basic knowledge on renewable energy and its requirement in the green world. How to harvest energies and how to store these energies have been clearly explained in this chapter. The role of various types of currently used batteries has been discussed here.

The scope of application of electrical and semiconductor materials is very vast. These materials find utilities are not only electrical machines, equipments, devices, etc., but are also used as components, circuits, and other auxiliaries related to electronics, computers, and instrumentation fields. Their importance is also realized in cable networking, wireless networking, satellites, optical devices, etc. They find very useful applications even in medical, mechanical, nuclear, biotechnological fields. This chapter is specially designed for advanced semiconductor/conductor materials such as supercapacitors, superconducting materials, advanced semiconductor materials, high-mobility organic transistors. Here, the mechanism for each material with their clear vision in an application has been discussed.

This chapter discusses about emerging advanced materials: ultrafine grain materials. The concept of this material has been discussed with respect to the grain size and grain boundary behavior toward the low- and high-temperature processing. Different superplastic deformation processes such as equal-channel angular pressing, high-pressure torsion, accumulative roll bonding, friction stir processing, multidirectional forging, cyclic extrusion and compression, repetitive corrugation and straightening, twist extrusion along with the machining process have been discussed. Currently, revealed properties and the developing product have been discussed.

In this era, intermetallic technology going to take a broad advantage with its presence in high-temperature processing materials. This chapter gives a brief idea of the intermetallic compound. This chapter shows how their presence can improve the materials’ properties. Various structures of the intermetallic compound and their classification have been discussed. Applications in aerovehicle industries, automobile industries, and electrical industries have been stated here.

This chapter describes the novel step in organic/inorganic combined science that can solve many problems. A clear picture of the combination of metal-organic framework and their behavior has been discussed. All the synthesis procedures to fabricate these materials such as hydrothermal or solvothermal techniques, microwave-assisted synthesis, sonochemical synthesis, mechanochemical synthesis, electrochemical synthesis, surfactant-assisted synthesis, and microfluidic MOF synthesis have been discussed. Various types of working mechanism involved with the specific type of MOF materials have been discussed. The two broad principles, that is, adsorptive separation and membrane separation, have been described with their potential application.

Currently, additive manufacturing heavily impacted on the production industries and tends to change the global economy quickly, contributing greatly to their overall success. Additive manufacturing is a production process by which a 3D CAD model is converted into a physical object by joining material layer by layer. In this chapter, the main concept of the process and how it can be advantageous than the conventional subtractive processes have been described. Various types of additive manufacturing processes, such as material extrusion, VAT photopolymerization, material jetting, powder bed fusion, directed energy deposition, binder jetting, sheet lamination, have been discussed. The most used metal, ceramics and polymer, composites, intermetallic compound, high entropy alloys, and bulk metallic glass has been discussed. The concept behind 3D, 4D, and 5D printing has been given here. At last, various types of most used industrial practices have been explained here.