Advances and Needs in Marine Science Research in the Archipelago of San Andrés, Providencia, and Santa Catalina: A Literature Analysis

The bibliographic search was carried out in the following databases (1–6) and online search engines (a–j):

For the search in the different databases, the following keywords were used: “San Andrés”, with the following combinations: “Seaflower Biosphere Reserve”, “archipelago”, “Providencia”, “Santa Catalina”, or “Colombian Caribbean”. Words in English and Spanish were used to generate as many results as possible, without any time restriction on the search. The search was carried out between August 2021 and February 2022.

Bibliographic references were classified into scientific articles, books and chapters, theses, and other documents. Once the search work was done, an Excel file was created with the following fields: author or authors’ surname(s), author or authors’ name(s), author or authors’ affiliation(s). In the case of articles: year of publication, title, journal, volume, number, pages, and DOI. In the case of books and chapters, additional fields were the ISBN, the editorial house, and the APA citation.

The information of the documents stored in the Excel file was transferred to an Access database and a search engine was created, with an interface that allows the user to conduct bibliographic searches on the marine science documents referring to the archipelago. Upon starting the application, instructions on how to conduct searches in the database are given, including a video tutorial.

A total of 422 documents were located, of which 201 were scientific articles, 41 were books and book chapters, and 77 were undergraduate and postgraduate theses. A compilation was also made of internal documents, technical reports, and abstracts, which amounted to 103 entries.

The search for patterns and tendencies in the database is based on the titles of the documents and a cursory review of their content. To that end, a system of keywords was developed so that the number of associations between the document and the keywords, herewith called mentions, was used as a metric to discover patterns in the focus and orientations of the documents. A document may be associated with more than one keyword. Titles of documents in English, German, and French were translated into Spanish before the application of the keyword system.

Two sets of keywords were developed, one dealing with biotic groups i.e., not strictly taxonomic groups, and the other dealing with general themes in biology, ecology, and environmental studies. Biotic groups were as follows: Fishes, Mollusks, Bacteria (Bacteria and Cyanobacteria), Coral (Reefs—“Arrecife”, Atolls—“Arrecifal”, Coral—“Coralino”), Macroalgae, Mammals, Sponges, Hexacorals (Anemones and Zoanthids), Turtles, Polychaetes, Echinoderms, Plankton (Phytoplankton, Zooplankton, Ichthyoplankton, Dinoflagellate, Foraminifera, Zooxanthellae), Seagrasses, Octocorals (Octocorals and Gorgonacea), Mangroves, Crustaceans, and Birds.

The thematic keyword set included: Physical Sciences (Physical Oceanography, Chemical Oceanography, Geology, Geomorphology, climate events), Genetics, Paleontology, Coraline Affections (diseases and bleaching), Interactions (ontogenic changes according to habitat, predation, synergies on “blue carbon”, responses on presence of snappers, allelopathic relations, symbiosis), Distribution, Temporal Change (seasonal or long term), Abundance (density, abundance), Population (individual growth, ontogeny, mortality, reproduction including size at first reproduction and reproductive aggregations, recruitment, demography, physiology, active molecules), Fisheries, Assemblages (meaning structural co-occurrence of species), Management and Environment (ecosystem services including economic valuations, planning, impact of Hurricane Beta, water quality, algae blooms, environmental threats including algae toxicity and contamination, marine protected areas, management, sustainability), and Lists (new species records, new species to science, lists of species).

Of the biotic groups defined, Corals, Fishes, Mollusks, Crustaceans, and Macroalgae represent the bulk of mentions with a cumulative percentage of 68.7% (Fig. 1). As expected, Corals is the biotic group that has received the most attention (22.4% of all mentions). One notable finding is that several major groups important in reef landscapes have scarcely been touched upon, like seagrasses, sponges, or echinoderms while important groups like Sipunculids and Bryozoa are absent. Looking within groups, several absences can be noticed, for instance, peracarid crustaceans and nonspecific mention of Bivalves among others.

A bar graph of the mention frequency percentage versus biotic groups in Articles. Values are approximate. The highest data indicates for coral at 22.5%. The lowest data indicates for plankton and bacteria at 4.5%.

Not only are several major biotic groups poorly or not represented in the articles. Within the biotic groups, a very small number of species have been the subject of focused studies. This is the case of the queen conch Aliger gigas (Linnaeus 1758) among Mollusks, representing 73.9% of mentions of Mollusks, and the spiny lobster Panulirus argus (Latreille 1804), representing 68.2% of mentions in the Crustaceans group. In both cases, the other mentions mostly refer to the respective biotic groups in general. A similar situation was found for Corals, for which just two mentions were recorded on a particular species Dendrogyra cylindrus (Ehrenberg 1834) and only one to Agaricia undata (Ellis 1786).

In the case of fishes, the same pattern emerges with most mentions referring to the general group. Thus, two mentions were recorded for snappers, serranids, and pelagic fishes, one for parrotfishes, groupers, Acanthurids, and the invader lionfish (Pterois volitans, Linnaeus 1758) while for cartilaginous fishes four mentions were recorded. The case of Macroalgae is no different, with just one mention recorded of the genera Sargassum, one mention of Crouania pumila (Gavio et al. 2013) a new species, and one mention of Griffithsia capitata (Børgesen 1930) as a new record. For octocorals, three mentions were made of Antillogorgia elisabethae (Bayer 1961).

These findings are a clear indication that, in the archipelago, the biotic groups as defined here have received uneven attention, with the bulk of mentions associated with certain groups, subgroups, and species. This indicates that the inventory of marine biodiversity of the archipelago is incomplete, and that studies on single species are exceptional.

The focus on the queen conch and the spiny lobster is not surprising given the commercial importance of both of these species, but their overwhelming representation in mentions inside their respective biotic groups reinforces the statements above. The scarcity of mentions recorded for snappers, groupers, parrot fishes, and cartilaginous fishes is surprising, as these fishes are an essential part of the ecological dynamics in coral reefs.

The theme with the highest number of mentions was Lists with 16.7% of all mentions (Fig. 2). Lists focus mostly on Macroalgae, Fishes, and Corals, collectively representing 53.3% of mentions inside this theme, with the other biotic groups amounting to less than 6% of mentions each. Clearly, a great effort has been made in characterizing the taxonomic aspect of biodiversity in the archipelago, with this theme being the most frequent in terms of mentions, but this effort has been biased to a limited number of biotic groups. This finding is in line with the findings of mentions by the biotic groups discussed above. Thus, mentions of biotic groups often relate to lists of species.

A bar graph of the mention frequency percentage versus themes in Articles. Values are approximate. The highest and lowest data indicate lists at 17% and interactions at 5%, respectively.

Management and Environment, and Physical Sciences, share the second position with 13.9% of mentions each (Fig. 2). For Management and Environment, three topics stand out: ecosystem services including economic valuation of services, management planning, and impacts due to anthropogenic activities or natural events (Hurricane Beta). Clearly, the establishment of the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve provoked significant attention to the management of the archipelago and its governance may look well-sustained on theoretical grounds.

In the Physical Sciences theme group, the most common topic is water movement, be it waves or currents (Physical Oceanography). The general current system of the archipelago appears to be well-characterized, as is also the case with geomorphological features. Interestingly, few articles were found that related oceanographic features with biological features: a simulation on the dispersion of queen conch larvae, salinity related to hydroperiod and mangrove roots, and ecosystem responses to extreme climatic events. This line of research should be promoted, as it is central to the question of biological connectivity.

Assemblages is the third most frequently mentioned keyword (10.2% of mentions, Fig. 2). The structure of coral reef communities has been the focus of this theme, with detailed descriptions of co-occurrence patterns of coralline species (51.6% of mentions in this theme). This is not surprising, as coral reefs dominate the sea landscape. Assemblages of fishes rank second with 16.1% of mentions in the theme. Thus, the characterization of species co-occurrence patterns is a rather uncommon topic and one that is biased towards certain biotic groups.

Biology comes next in the frequency of mentions, followed by Fisheries (9.8% and 8.9% respectively, Fig. 2). Of the mentions in the Biology theme, 55.2% refer to the queen conch, Mangroves, and Coral. Mentions of the queen conch focus mostly on reproductive aspects. Few other species or groups are mentioned (Cittarium pica—Linnaeus 1758—, Dendrogira cylindrus—Eherenber 1834—, the spiny lobster, the black crab Gecarcinus ruricola—Linnaeus 1758, and Serranids), most of them with just one mention. Interesting is the case of Antillogorgia elisabethae (Bayer 1961) which has been investigated in relation to bioactive molecules.

The scarcity of Biology studies on the spiny lobster comes as a surprise, as this species is highly valued in economic terms and thus subject to fisheries. Beyond that, it is quite clear that knowledge of the biology of the species present in the archipelago is very shallow and incomplete. Topics of life history, vital rates, and demography are practically non-existent in the articles found on marine science in the archipelago, with the exceptions mentioned.

In the case of Fisheries, most mentions alluded to the characterization of capture and effort, and some alluded to the management of fishery resources. Fishery mentions included Fishes, spiny lobster, and the queen conch with 40%, 35%, and 20% of mentions, respectively. The black crab received just one mention in this thematic group. This finding clearly highlights the economic importance of the spiny lobster and the queen conch for the fishery of the archipelago. Surprisingly, quantitative fishery models, for example, of the type of surplus production models or yield per recruit models as needed for estimation of maximum sustainable yield, were not located, nor was work on indices or indicators for fishery management. The construction of a modern scientific base for fishery management in the archipelago appears to be a necessity.

A theme that is rather poorly represented in the database is Temporal Change (Fig. 2) with 7.3% of mentions. Four articles spanned decades in relation to Coral changes which is interesting. Articles related to other biotic groups referred to seasonal changes. Physical Sciences was present, with work that also spanned seasonal to multiannual and decadal observations. One point of concern, apart from the scarce number of mentions, is that just four articles may be related to global change, and of them, only one directly refers to global warming in relation to sea level rise. Global change and global warming should be approached with higher priority because these topics represent the biggest challenge to the future of the archipelago in the medium term.

Abundance occupies the seventh position in thematic mentions (Fig. 2). The bulk of mentions corresponds to Coral, the spiny lobster, and Fishes, with 54.5% of mentions. Other biotic groups associated with Abundance mostly recorded one mention each. Thus, not only is the inventory of species of the archipelago incomplete and biased, but the estimation of population sizes and density has concentrated on a few groups. This kind of estimation must be extended to many more species, in particular to key species in the trophic web if this feature is to be monitored as an indication of ecosystem and population health status.

All other themes received 6% of mentions, or less, in the database (Fig. 2). With some themes this might be expected, for example, Paleontology, but surprisingly, themes like Interactions and Coralline Affections are poorly represented. The scarcity of articles on biological interactions reflects a bias to taxonomy (Lists) and quantification of co-occurrence patterns (Assemblages) as themes of interest for the biota to date. Understanding the dynamical relations that underlie the biology and ecology of the archipelago is a necessary step both in advancing the marine sciences and in guaranteeing correct long-term management. No possibility of future scenario development is possible without an understanding of the interactions among species and populations.

Coral affections that include diseases and bleaching are also poorly represented in the articles the same is true of genetics. In the first case, the scarcity of mentions on this theme is surprising as most mentions in biotic group themes relate to Coral (Fig. 1). Research on this important topic has been sporadic and deserves more attention as affections are fundamental drivers of coral reef dynamics. The use of genetic tools should be promoted.

The most frequently mentioned biotic groups in books and book chapters (from now on, books) were Fishes, Corals, Mangroves, Mollusks, and Birds, in that order, with a cumulated 59.6% of mentions (Fig. 3). All other biotic groups received less than 6% of mentions each. In the case of Fishes, most mentions referred to fishes in general. Three mentions concern cartilaginous fishes and only one mention was recorded for the invader lionfish. The same pattern was found for the other biotic groups, i.e., mentions for the general biotic group and just one or two mentions of species, in this case, all of them mollusk (the queen conch, the magpie shell Cittarium pica—Linnaeus 1758—, and the black crab). No specific mention was recorded for the spiny lobster.

The pattern of documents concerning a limited group of taxa is also shown here, as was the case for articles. It is worrisome that there are no monographic studies of important species, be it for ecology or for fishery, which is also consistent with the findings for articles, regarding the scarcity of studies on the population biology of species of the archipelago.

Given that most books come from official institutions, it is not surprising that the bulk of mentions by the thematic group is for Management and Environment, with 40.3% of mentions (Fig. 4). Topics dealt with include plans aimed at conservation and management, and global descriptions of the reef landscape. An open question is whether these plans are evaluated in terms of achievement of their goals, and whether they are kept current. No book was found related to a critical evaluation of management, that is, contrasting objectives and achievements.

The second thematic group in terms of recorded mentions was Lists (14.0% of mentions, Fig. 4). Species lists are part of diagnostics and baselines. Various books covered several biotic groups, including groups not mentioned in articles like Birds, as they were aimed at inventorying the species richness of the archipelago. Interestingly, in this case of fishes, two books referred to cartilaginous fishes.

One work stands out (Vides et al. 2016) as the most inclusive biotic list covering all marine groups. The lack of taxonomic work on complete major groups identified for scientific articles is confirmed here: for phytoplankton and zooplankton, most records are labeled as “morphotypes”; peracarid crustaceans have not been identified; there is no record on marine fungi; Scyphozoa and Ctenophora are poorly known; Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, Nematoda, and Priapulida have no records; Polychaetes are poorly known; and finally, Tunicates and Sipunculida have no records.

Physical Sciences and Fisheries account for 10.5% of mentions each. In this case, within Physical Sciences, most mentions referred to geomorphological descriptions. In the case of Fisheries, the mentions refer to descriptions of the artisanal fleet and general considerations. As was the case with articles, no book was located that focused on fishery assessment based on formal models.

Temporal change received less than 9% of mentions (Fig. 4). It is worrisome that the focus has been on retrospective analysis of the monitoring of certain habitats (reefs, seaweeds, mangroves). No prospective studies in relation to climate change were found. The formulation of future scenarios is a necessary condition for rational planning that considers climate change and global warming if preservation of the biological values that sustain the creation of the Seaflower Biosphere Reserve is to be pursued.

All other themes (Abundance, Assemblages, Population Biology, Genetics) received less than 5% of mentions each. This reflects the need to broaden the palette of approaches in the marine sciences in relation to the archipelago.

The frequency of mentions is shown in Fig. 5. Between them, Fishes, Mollusks, and Crustaceans received 53.5% of mentions.

A bar graph of the mention frequency percentage versus biotic groups in the thesis. Values are approximate. The highest data is for fishes with a value of 23%. The lowest data is for seagrasses, polychaeta, and bacteria with a value of 4%.

The first thing to notice is that Corals received less than 2% of mentions in contrast to their high percentage of mentions in articles and books. In general, the mentions associated with the keyword Fishes referred to fishes globally. One specific mention was made of the barracuda Sphyraena barracuda (Edwards 1771), the invader lionfish, and the yellowtail snapper Ocyurus chrysurus (Bloch 1791). The genera of parrotfishes Scarus and Sparisoma were mentioned one time each. In the case of Crustaceans, the spiny lobster was the only species mentioned (twice) with the other mentions referring to broad groups. For Mollusks, mentions of the queen conch amounted to 46.2% of all mentions in that group. For the other biotic groups, just one mention of a species was located for the octocoral Pseudopterogorgia elisabethae (Bayer 1961). Thus, as was the case with articles and books, work on the biology of specific species is scarce and biased toward certain species.

Distribution of mentions by thematic groups is shown in Fig. 6.

A bar graph of the mention frequency percentage versus theme groups in thesis. Values are approximate. The bars follow a decreasing trend. The highest and lowest data are for lists with a value of 19% and temporal change with a value of 3%, respectively.

Lists represent 18.7% of mentions (Fig. 6). So, in this case also, much work has been dedicated to taxonomic identification of species. Interestingly, Plankton stands out with the same number of mentions as Mollusks, and one more than Crustaceans (Fig. 6). Population biology is the next theme with the most mentions (Fig. 6). Mentions at the species level in this theme refer to the queen conch. Most other mentions in this theme refer to reproductive aspects and ontogenic changes for groups of species. Management and Environment come next (Fig. 6) with three main topics, economic valuations, contamination, and water quality. As for Fishing, two theses were found that alluded to fishery models, that is, proper fishery assessments, with most other work referring to descriptions of capture and effort. All mentions of Temporal Change referred to seasonal change in assemblages, that is, no attempt to explore global change was found in this type of document.