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Agroecology

Simplified and Explained

  • 2019
  • Buch
Verfasst von
Dr. Paul Wojtkowski
Verlag
Springer International Publishing
Enthalten in
Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"
Springer Professional "Technik"
Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"
insite
SUCHEN

Über dieses Buch

This book presents the core elements that underwrite agroecology. Expressed across twelve chapters, the universality of the core is the essence of agroecology. This alone would be of interest to researchers, students, and academics. Furthermore, the book contains a long, detailed, and inclusive glossary that, with over 160 entries, elaborates on the topics presented. Included are recent developments as well as time-tested, traditional farm practices. The book also advances the theoretical base, fills gaps in the published research, and suggests future opportunities and future directions. The book is internationally oriented, presenting both temperate and tropical agriculture.

The book begins by comparing agroecology against conventional, monoculturally-based agriculture. In doing so, it defines the unique features of agroecology and their significance in achieving sustainable and environmentally-friendly agriculture. The book goes on to discuss the underlying technologies, the various manifestations of biodiversity, and the risk countermeasures associated with agroecology. This includes the farm landscape as a positive base for ecology, and how, if used well, it can produce major economic growth. The book concludes by summarizing the key findings, and assessing the macro-challenges facing agroecology.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter Commentary
Agroecology has a history deeply rooted in antiquity. Regardless, it is comparatively new in people’s consciousness and in many of the approaches advocated. To place agroecology in a modern context, it should be compared with the reigning paradigms, i.e., both to conventional agriculture and what is often termed the green revolution model.
These comparisons look at the good and the bad. The notion, and the hope, is that agroecology is capable of setting higher standards while mitigating those aspects of agriculture that are deemed unsavory or harmful. It is from this base that agroecology develops.
Good as this is, agroecology can, in the right situations, ecologically and economically outperform conventional agriculture. By way of biodiversity, well-formulated and redundant eco-services can enhance yields and/or lower costs. This involves a range of bio-techniques and a high degree of complexity. Less trodden, these are roads worth traveling. They are outlined in this text.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 2. Agroecosystem Design
Chapter Commentary
The first chapter began the process of defining agroecology (a) in lexicographic terms, (b) as an academic science, (c) from an economic perspective, and (d) as the basis for selecting among the many agronomically productive, land-use possibilities. Most of all, agroecology is a land-use science where at the core is a plot-demarcated agroecosystem.
This text offers a streamlined explanation as to how the many parts fit together. The goal is to arrive at a site, climate, and socioeconomically suitable agrosystems.
To achieve this, there is a central path from which all the agroecosystem designs originate. There are three steps along the agro-design path: (1) the core elements of agrosystem design, (2) the cropping threats, and their counters, arriving at (3) a recognized or novel agrotechnology. This chapter looks at the first of these steps, the core elements that form the base agroecosystem.
In agroecology, development is not complete without evaluation. This chapter also presents those economic methodologies that determine the efficacy of the core elements.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 3. The Agroecological Matrix
Chapter Commentary
Adding the cropping threats and their counters (also termed eco-dynamics or eco-services) to the base agroecosystem is the second step along the central, design-originating path. As there are many threats and each has many counters, this chapter might well be a messy affair.
There is a reprieve. It is possible to condense the threats and counters into matrix form. This makes the process, and explanations, manageable.
If there is to be any takeaway, it is that multiple threats can, in full or part, be addressed through a single counter. Also, that multiple counters layer or mutually reinforce, each helping to mitigate a single threat.
These are strong assertions, so much so that this chapter also continues the process of defining agroecology. This can be formally done through the internal eco-dynamics and the accompanying answers to the many cropping threats. In addition, agroecosystems can be defined, viewed, and ranked by way of matrix-derived measures of intensity.
Given the various manifestations of the matrix as the central explanatory tool, it is safe to say that the agroecological matrix represents one expression of agroecology. In doing so, the matrix is both a defining and explanatory concept. It is also an analytical tool.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 4. Agrotechnologies
Chapter Commentary
The third step along the central path is the arrival point, i.e., the finished or nearly finished agroecosystem. Resulting agrosystems can be grouped as to their unique design and their field application parameters. These groupings are the agrotechnologies. From a systems perspective, these can define agroecology.
For many, this is the starting point. The recognized agrotechnologies are a simplification that allows users, those not willing or capable of taking the design path, to successfully employ agroecologically superior agroecosystems.
Whereas individual plants, either productive or facilitative, are the bio-components of a plot, there are other agrotechnologies that often do not yield but prove a facilitative service. These can be either plant or land modification based. These are introduced in this chapter.
The few variations on the simplest agroecosystem, the monoculture, are also part of the discussion. As most common of the agrotechnologies, these are usually differentiated by the crop species (one) contained. There are, in addition to the single-age, one variety monoculture, other types.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 5. Productive Intercropping
Chapter Commentary
The previous chapters have distilled agroecology into a three-step path, (1) the base or core agroecosystem, (2) the inclusion of the threat counters, and (3) finished agrotechnologies. All agrosystem designs originate from a formal or informal rendering of this process.
This chapter looks at variations of the productive agrotechnologies. This is where all the component species yield contributions, and each output is of economic interest.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 6. Feed Systems and Facilitative Intercrops
Chapter Commentary
Often fronted by the dual-output, seasonal intercrop, agroecology is far from limited to this form. Within the threats that constrain yields, there are some that can be overcome by the planting of a second or even a third species. Lacking a second output, this is the facilitative intercrop. There are a number of facilitative-based agrotechnologies.
In addition, there are those agrosystems where livestock, of various forms, feed. Animal forage can be considered as just another crop. However, when the animals are present, there are nuances.
Because of this, feed systems are treated as separate topic. Inclusive is a brief mention of those feed systems involving eatable insects and aquatic animals.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 7. Complex Agroecosystems
Chapter Commentary
Up to this point, the focus is on the less complicated, plant-plant dynamics, those that underwrite bicultures, and other simple agrosystems. They contain fewer than seven species and come complete with rules that aid in the pairing of unlike, co-planted species.
In contrast, complex agroecosystems have seven or more interacting species. By way of density, diversity, disarray, and duration, the contained agrotechnologies enter a realm where the overall ecology of the agrosystem, not the one-on-one interactions, dominates.
This results in a proliferation of cost- and labor-saving eco-services. Toward achieving the economic ideal, low costs are coupled with expected, high, LER-stated yields.
For these, there is another set of rules. They allow users to cope with enhanced and ordinarily unmanageable, bio-complexity.
These have a long, unnoticed history of use. The Biblical Garden of Eden, “…with all kinds of trees ..., pleasing to the eye and good to eat” (Genesis 2:7), would have been an eatable landscape. Most likely, this would have been a complex agroecosystem.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 8. Risk
Chapter Commentary
Up to this point, this text has focused on yields, revenue, costs, and ultimately profit. There are other economic forces at work. Certainty in crop yields, especially in climatically trying years, can be more important than revenue and profit. This is probably true for the vast majority of the world farmers.
Risk, or the mitigation thereof, brings forth another aspect of agroecology. Going beyond the regular threat counters, there are solutions and design variations that help guarantee base yields when the weather is far from ideal.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 9. Landscape Agroecology
Chapter Commentary
The farm landscape (or farm-scape) has a number of roles. As in Chap. 3, the immediate landscape, which surrounds a targeted plot, can provide a range of plot-receiving eco-services. Also, Chap. 8 discusses the risk-countering possibilities inherent in a well-formulated landscape.
The landscape is far more. It can be a dominant theme within the body of agroecological thought. By extension, it can be an economic, ecological, environmental, and/or productive focal point.
Where, mostly if, the possibility exists for large-scale change, the traits associated with an ecologically promising landscape are known. The “if” scenario comes about because of the many impediments to change.
This chapter ends by presenting three agroecological categories. As a ranking of least to most, these also apply across all of agroecology.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 10. Advanced Economics
Chapter Commentary
This chapter starts by delving into opportunity cost and economic orientation. Discussion is meant to provide a clearer, more detailed picture on the theory behind orientation. This includes and a look at some deviations from the norm.
Most agriculture is monetary stated. This is not always the case. In subsistence agroecology, there are on-farm trade-offs between money, land, and labor. Cash-poor farmers must often substitute labor and/or land when nonfarm expenses place a high demand on income. This moves farmers along set paths. The accompanying analysis is part of a greater understanding.
Finally, there are both revenue and cost versions of agroecology. The revenue version seeks high yields, mostly through multi-output agrosystems. These place little reliance on eco-services. Although outside what is advocated in this book, input-based, revenue-oriented agroecology deserves a mention.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 11. Macro-Challenges
Chapter Commentary
There is a strong argument to be made that biodiversity-based agroecology is superior, on almost all fronts, to conventional agriculture. Having explained the rudiments of agroecology, this chapter examines some of the other challenges, controversies, views, and opportunities that frame an agro-future.
Paul Wojtkowski
Chapter 12. Summary
Chapter Commentary
The proceeding chapters explain the rudiments of agroecology. This is done in stripped-down, streamlined terms. At the risk of downplaying the many details that make agroecology universally applicable, the in-depth explanations have been relegated to the glossary.
This chapter summarizes what has been textually outlined. In essence, this further streamlines the streamlined explanation.
This starts with the plant species (one or more) and ends with infield agrotechnologies that meet, or attempt to fulfill, users’ expectations. All are accompanied by the underlying economics. All are also accompanied by comments on their use potential. This chapter ends with the categories of and, without resolution, some of the surviving definitions.
Paul Wojtkowski
Backmatter
Titel
Agroecology
Verfasst von
Dr. Paul Wojtkowski
Copyright-Jahr
2019
Electronic ISBN
978-3-319-93209-5
Print ISBN
978-3-319-93208-8
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93209-5

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