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2019 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

All that Glitters: Conflict Diamonds, Dirty Gold and the WTO Legal Framework on Trade and Human Rights

verfasst von : Krista Nadakavukaren Schefer

Erschienen in: European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2018

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This chapter assesses schemes regulating gold, diamonds and minerals stemming from zones of conflict and reviews the compatibility of these regulatory frameworks with the global trading system epitomized by the World Trade Organization (WTO). In particular, the chapter considers whether the Kimberly Process Certification Scheme could—and should—serve as a model for deeper integration of human rights considerations into the WTO system. After reviewing how conflict minerals became a concept and gained the international community’s attention, the chapter sets out the framework of the Kimberley Process Certification System as an early response to the conflict minerals problem. The chapter analyses the principles of WTO law that make regulation of supply chains legally problematic for WTO Members. Turning to gold, the chapter describes the processes underway to eliminate “dirty” gold from the legitimate international supply chains. To conclude, the chapter discusses the likelihood of a “Kimberley Process for gold” and suggests that the international community may be moving beyond worrying about WTO rules when trying to address how most effectively to resolve human rights violations in supply chains.

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Fußnoten
1
See generally Bernstein (2012); Kretschmer (2003).
 
2
Or as a backing of currency to secure the value of the official tender in circulation.
 
3
Global Witness, A Rough Trade: The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict (1998), text available at (last accessed 22 September 2017); Smillie I, Gberie L, and Hazleton R (2000) The Heart of the Matter: Sierra Leone Diamonds & Human Security.
 
4
See below Sect. 3.
 
5
The Kimberley Process’ obvious and serious weaknesses in enforcement have been documented by, among others, Global Witness itself, who withdrew from being a formal Observer to the Process in 2011. Gooch C, Global Witness Leaves Kimberley Process, Calls for Diamond Trade to be Held Accountable, 2 December 2011, available at: https://​www.​globalwitness.​org/​en/​archive/​global-witness-leaves-kimberley-process-calls-diamond-trade-be-held-accountable/​ (last accessed 22 September 2017). The NGO protested that the Process had proven itself “increasingly outdated” by refusing “to evolve and address the clear links between diamonds, violence and tyranny.” Global Witness Leaves Kimberley Process, Calls for Diamond Trade to be Held Accountable, Press release, 2 December 2011, available at: https://​www.​globalwitness.​org/​en/​archive/​global-witness-leaves-kimberley-process-calls-diamond-trade-be-held-accountable/​ (last accessed 22 September 2017).
 
6
Global Witness, War in the Treasury of the People: Afghanistan, Lapis Lazuli and the battle for mineral wealth (2016), text available at: https://​www.​globalwitness.​org/​en/​campaigns/​conflict-minerals/​war-treasury-people-afghanistan-lapis-lazuli-and-battle-mineral-wealth/​ (last accessed 23 April 2018).
 
7
The horrors of this campaign were captured on the award-winning documentary film “Cry Freetown,” directed by Somura (2000), Cry Freetown, available at: https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​NUCfAOBH3wo (last accessed 3 September 2017).
 
8
The political science and economic literature on the causes of civil wars is huge. A good place to begin is the economic analysis provided by Collier and Hoeffler in their 2004 article, Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Collier and Hoeffler (2004), pp. 563–595.
 
9
The “resource curse” is the label given to the observed phenomenon of failing to develop economically despite—or indeed, because of—their abundance of natural resources. See Sachs J and Warner A, “Natural Resource Abundance and Economic Growth” NBER Working Paper No. 5398, December 1995, text available at: http://​www.​nber.​org/​papers/​w5398 (last accessed 23 January 2018); Frankel J, The Natural Resource Curse: A Survey of Diagnoses and Some Prescriptions. HKS Faculty Research Working Paper Series RWP12-014, John F. Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University (2012).
 
10
E.g., Zimbabwe’s alleged use of a large portion of its national sales of diamonds from the Marange mines for maintaining a state intelligence apparatus to control the population. See Global Witness, Zimbabwe’s Vast Diamond Riches Exploited by Secretive Political and Military Elites, Report Shows, Press Release, 11.9.2017, text available at: https://​www.​globalwitness.​org/​en-gb/​press-releases/​zimbabwes-vast-diamond-riches-exploited-secretive-political-and-military-elites-report-shows/​ (last accessed 24 April 2017).
 
11
E.g., European Commission, The New Regulation: What are Conflict Minerals?, http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​trade/​policy/​in-focus/​conflict-minerals-regulation/​regulation-explained/​ (last accessed 22 September 2017).
 
12
“Conflict resources” is a broader term (one which I have not found in legislation) and can include plants, whether narcotics or medicinal, which are traded to support parties to an armed conflict. Burnley (2011), p. 7.
 
13
The Kimberley Process homepage has a history as well as relevant documents online, https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en (last accessed 25 January 2018).
 
14
United Nations, Resolution adopted by the General Assembly, ‘The role of diamonds in fuelling conflict: breaking the link between the illicit transaction of rough diamonds and armed conflict as a contribution to prevention and settlement of conflicts,’ A/RES/55/56 (29 January 2001).
 
15
Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, Preamble, text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​system/​files/​documents/​KPCS%20​Core%20​Document.​pdf (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
16
Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, Annex I (A) and (B), text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​system/​files/​documents/​KPCS%20​Core%20​Document.​pdf (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
17
This limitation was present from the beginning. UNGA Resolution 55/56, promoting the original Kimberley Process efforts, restricted the scope through its definition of the subject: trade in “conflict diamonds.” It noted in the preambular language that it “Understand[s] conflict diamonds to be rough diamonds which are used by rebel movements to finance their military activities, including attempts to undermine or overthrow legitimate Governments,” A/RES/55/56.
 
18
Several participants, including Canada, the European Union, and the United States, complained about the abuses.
 
19
The 2013 amendments to the Core Document included the insertion of Annex IV, which contains “additional requirements for establishing internal controls” to the existing provisions. Modification to the Core Document of the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme, Decision 1/2013 (in effect as of 1 January 2015).
 
20
Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, Section IV (“Principles of Industry Self-Regulation”), text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​system/​files/​documents/​KPCS%20​Core%20​Document.​pdf (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
21
Miklian J, “Let’s Deal!” A Conversation with a Diamond Smuggler, Words Without Borders, Magazine, September 2013, text available at: http://​www.​wordswithoutbord​ers.​org/​article/​lets-deal-a-conversation-with-a-diamond-smuggler (last accessed 3 September 2017).
 
22
Id.
 
23
See Letter Dated 15 July 2004 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, S/2004/551, paras. 26–47, (15 July 2004).
 
24
Miklian J, “Let’s Deal!” A Conversation with a Diamond Smuggler, Words Without Borders, Magazine, September 2013, text available at: http://​www.​wordswithoutbord​ers.​org/​article/​lets-deal-a-conversation-with-a-diamond-smuggler (last accessed 3 September 2017).
 
25
See below Sect. 4.
 
26
Pub.L. 111–203, 124 Stat. 1376–2223 (21 July 2010); for an explanation and analysis of the Act, see Dorman et al. (2010).
 
27
For an overview of the Act, see Skeel (2010).
 
28
Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, Pub.L. 111–203, Section 1502(e)(4).
 
29
OECD (2016) OECD due diligence guidance for responsible supply chains of minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas.
 
30
Id., p. 66.
 
31
E.g., Responsible Jewellrey Council, https://​www.​responsiblejewel​lery.​com/​oecd-due-diligence-guidance/​ (last accessed 23 January 2018); London Bullion Market Association http://​www.​lbma.​org.​uk/​assets/​LBMA%20​Audit%20​Guidance%20​v%20​0.​pdf (last accessed 23 January 2018).
 
32
Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 laying down supply chain due diligence obligations for Union importers of tin, tantalum and tungsten, their ores, and gold originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, OJ 2017, L 130/1, Article 2(f).
 
33
Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 laying down supply chain due diligence obligations for Union importers of tin, tantalum and tungsten, their ores, and gold originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, OJ 2017, L 130/1, Articles 2(a), 2(b).
 
34
Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 laying down supply chain due diligence obligations for Union importers of tin, tantalum and tungsten, their ores, and gold originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, OJ 2017, L 130/1, Article 1.1.
 
35
Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, Section III (“Undertakings in respect of the international trade in rough diamonds”), text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​system/​files/​documents/​KPCS%20​Core%20​Document.​pdf (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
36
Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​participants (last accessed 4 September 2017).
 
37
Only ten states have joined as KPCS participants subsequent to 2003: Bangladesh, Cambodia, Cameroon, Liberia, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Liberia, Mexico, New Zealand, Panama, Singapore, Swaziland, and Turkey. See Kimberley Process Certification System, Core Document, text available at: https://​www.​kimberleyprocess​.​com/​en/​participants (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
38
This possibility is heightened by the fact that a WTO Member does not need to have actual imports or exports of a product to bring a complaint based on another Member’s restrictions on trade in that product. The Appellate Body of the WTO has confirmed that the potential for trade of a certain product satisfies the requirements for launching a dispute settlement proceeding. Accepting indirect as well as direct impacts on internal conditions of trade as targets of Members’ concern, the WTO dispute settlement system is substantially relieved of limits on standing:
135. […] we believe that a Member has broad discretion in deciding whether to bring a case against another Member under the DSU. The language of Article XXIII:1 of the GATT 1994 and of Article 3.7 of the DSU suggests, furthermore, that a Member is expected to be largely self-regulating in deciding whether any such action would be “fruitful.”
136. We are satisfied that the United States was justified in bringing its claims under the GATT 1994 in this case. The United States is a producer of bananas, and a potential export interest by the United States cannot be excluded. The internal market of the United States for bananas could be affected by the EC banana regime, in particular, by the effects of that regime on world supplies and world prices of bananas. We also agree with the Panel’s statement that:
... with the increased interdependence of the global economy,... Members have a greater stake in enforcing WTO rules than in the past since any deviation from the negotiated balance of rights and obligations is more likely than ever to affect them, directly or indirectly.[footnote]
European Communities—Regime for the Importation, Sale and Distribution of Bananas (“EC-Bananas III”), WT/DS27/AB/R, paras. 135–136 (9 September 1997) (quoting the panel reports of the same case at para. 7.50).
 
39
Negative consensus decisionmaking applies to decisions about sanctions: that is, unless all members of the DSB refuse to accept the proposal to impose sanctions (including the member proposing them in the first place), the decision will be deemed accepted. DSU Article 22.6.
 
40
Feichtner (2009), p. 616.
 
41
TBT Agreement, Annex I, 1.
 
42
TBT Agreement, Article 2.1.
 
43
Harmonized commodity numbers 7102.10, 7102.21 or 7102.31 refer to unworked diamonds.
 
44
Pauwelyn (2003), p. 1183.
 
45
See discussion below.
 
46
While the idea of MFN would allow for different-but-equal treatment, clearly permitting trade with one state and not with another is explicitly discriminatory.
 
47
Pauwelyn (2003), pp. 1184–1185.
 
48
Pauwelyn (2003), pp. 1185–1186.
 
49
The first Appellate Body report to interpret the public morals exception in Article XX(a) GATT was the EC-Seals case. European Communities—Measures Prohibiting the Importation and Marketing of Seal Products, WT/DS400/AB/R and WT/DS401/AB/R, paras. 5.194–5.203 (22 May 2014). This had been preceded by the US-Gambling case, interpreting the invocation of the public morals exception in the GATS, Article XIV(a). See United States—Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/R, paras. 6.457–6.474 (10 November 2004); United States—Measures Affecting the Cross-Border Supply of Gambling and Betting Services, WT/DS285/AB/R, paras. 293–299 (7 April 2005).
 
50
EC-Seals, WT/DS401/AB/R at para. 5.199.
 
51
Korea—Measures Affecting Imports of Fresh, Chilled and Frozen Beef, WT/DS161/AB/R and WT/DS169/AB/R, paras. 161–162 (11 December 2000); Brazil-Measures Affecting Imports of Retreaded Tyres, WT/DS332/AB/R, paras. 179, 210 (3 December 2007).
 
52
Offor and Walter (2017), p. 160. For a good overview of the numerous angles to this question, see Bartels (2002). See also de Mestral (2014).
 
53
The literature on PPMs is huge. An excellent overview of the multiple considerations at stake is the 2002 article written by Steve Charnovitz. Charnovitz S, The Law of Environmental “PPMs” in the WTO: Debunking the Myth of Illegality, 27 Yale J. Int’l L. (2002), text available at: http://​digitalcommons.​law.​yale.​edu/​yjil/​vol27/​iss1/​4 (last accessed 4 September 2017).
 
54
See, e.g., Potts J, The Legality of PPMs under the GATT: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Trade Policy (IISD, 2008), text available at: http://​www.​iisd.​org/​library/​legality-ppms-under-gatt-challenges-and-opportunities-sustainable-trade-policy (last accessed 3 September 2017).
 
55
See WTO Agreement, Article IX.3 (setting out the procedural steps required for the granting of a waiver).
 
56
WTO Agreement, Article IX.4 (emphasis supplied).
 
57
Decision of 15 May 2003, WT/L/518 (27 May 2003).
 
58
Decision of 15 May 2003, WT/L/518 (27 May 2003).
 
59
See Nadakavukaren Schefer (2005). Indeed, since writing that article, the KPCS waiver has been extended twice (each for six more years), with the latest decision set to expire (or be up for renewal) on 31 December 2018. See Extension of Waiver Concerning Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for Rough Diamonds, WT/L/876 (14 December 2012). There seems, moreover, no resolution of the diamond-conflict chain in many of the African countries where these links were first detected. As a result, this “temporary” instrument for an “extraordinary” situation, appears destined to continue indefinitely.
 
60
Ankersmit L, Lawrence J, and Davies G, Diverging EU and WTO perspectives on extraterritorial process regulation, 21 Minn. J. Int’l L. Online 14, 76 (2011–2012).
 
61
Mackinnon (1987a), p. 7.
 
62
Mackinnon (1987b), p. 22.
 
63
Mackinnon (1987c), p. 71.
 
64
E.g., Wilson (1972); Hilson (2012), available at: http://​www.​sciencedirect.​com/​science/​article/​pii/​S0305750X1200054​X (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
65
Salomons (1995), text available at: https://​ac.​els-cdn.​com/​037567429400039E​/​1-s2.​0-037567429400039E​-main.​pdf?​_​tid=​a3fd64d0-a75c-11e7-81c8-00000aacb35d&​acdnat=​1506940379_​feabcec28bde092f​9cb7844f092730e4​ (last accessed 2 October 2017); Harvard Law School International Human Rights Clinic, The Cost of Gold: Environmental, Health, and Human Rights Consequences of Gold Mining in South Africa’s West and Central Rand (2016); Centre for Environmental Rights, Zero Hour: Poor Governance of Mining and the Violation of Environmental Rights in Mpumalanga (May 2016), https://​cer.​org.​za/​wp-content/​uploads/​2016/​06/​Zero-Hour-May-2016.​pdf (last accessed 2 October 2017).
 
66
Letter dated 16 July 2007 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, S/2007/423, para. 37 (18 July 2007).
 
67
Letter dated 16 July 2007 from the Chairman of the Security Council Committee established pursuant to resolution 1533 (2004) concerning the Democratic Republic of the Congo addressed to the President of the Security Council, S/2007/423, paras. 61–74 (18 July 2007).
 
68
These are the minerals referred to as the “3Ts,” used heavily in the electronics industry (coltran is tantalum ore).
 
70
Security Council Resolution 1857, S/RES/1857 (2008); S/RES/2021 (2011); S/RES/2078 (2012); S/RES/2136 (2014); S/RES/2198 (2015); S/RES/2277 (2016); S/RES/2293 (2016); S/RES/2360 (2017).
 
71
Partnership Africa Canada, All that glitters is not gold (2014), text available at: https://​impacttransform.​org/​wp-content/​uploads/​2017/​09/​2014-May-All-That-Glitters-is-not-Gold-Dubai-Congo-and-the-Illicit-Trade-of-Conflict-Minerals.​pdf (last accessed 24 April 2018); Global Witness, River of gold (2016), text available at: https://​www.​globalwitness.​org/​en/​campaigns/​conflict-minerals/​river-of-gold-drc/​ (last accessed 24 April 2018).
 
72
The Dodd-Frank Act was mainly aiming to restore stability to the financial system by creating new oversight agents, enhancing consumer protection rules, and increasing the transparency of financial institutions’ activities.
 
73
Dodd-Frank Act, § 1502(b).
 
74
See Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (2017) Expert study on the Swiss gold sector: final draft of 6 November 2017, pp. 108–136 (examining the gold supply chain regulations of South Africa, Dubai, and India). See also discussion of Regulation (EU) 2017/821 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 May 2017 laying down supply chain due diligence obligations for Union importers of tin, tantalum and tungsten, their ores, and gold originating from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, OJ 2017, L 130/1 above at III.
 
75
OECD, OECD due diligence guidance for minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas 3d ed., Supplement on gold (August 2016) (emphasis in original).
 
76
OECD, Recommendation of the Council on due diligence guidance for responsible supply chains of minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, 25 May 2011—C/MIN(2011)12/FINAL, amended on 17 July 2012—C(2012)93, Annex I.
 
77
OECD, Recommendation of the Council on due diligence guidance for responsible supply chains of minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, 25 May 2011—C/MIN(2011)12/FINAL, amended on 17 July 2012—C(2012)93, Annex, Supplement on gold.
 
78
OECD, Recommendation of the Council on due diligence guidance for responsible supply chains of minerals from conflict-affected and high-risk areas, 25 May 2011—C/MIN(2011)12/FINAL, amended on 17 July 2012—C(2012)93, Annex, at pp. 84–86. (unklar)
 
79
World Gold Council, Conflict-Free Gold Standard (October 2012), available at the link on the page http://​www.​gold.​org/​who-we-are/​our-members/​responsible-gold/​conflict-free-gold-standard (last accessed 8 September 2017).
 
80
World Gold Council, Conflict-Free Gold Standard (October 2012), available at the link on the page http://​www.​gold.​org/​who-we-are/​our-members/​responsible-gold/​conflict-free-gold-standard (last accessed 8 September 2017).
 
81
Personal discussion with manager of a large gold refiner on 13 January 2018 in Basel, Switzerland.
 
82
Dubai’s problems with fraud and smuggling are highlighted in a United Nations report. Final report of the Group of Experts on the Democratic Republic of the Congo (S/2017/672/Rev.1) published on August 16th 2017, available at: http://​www.​un.​org/​Docs/​journal/​asp/​ws.​asp?​m=​S/​2017/​672/​Rev.​1.
 
83
See Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs (2017) Expert study on the Swiss gold sector: final draft of 6 November 2017, p. 136 (discussing India’s informal and disperse gold jewelry making sector as a possible hurdle to effective enforcement of industry standards).
 
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Metadaten
Titel
All that Glitters: Conflict Diamonds, Dirty Gold and the WTO Legal Framework on Trade and Human Rights
verfasst von
Krista Nadakavukaren Schefer
Copyright-Jahr
2019
Verlag
Springer International Publishing
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/8165_2018_4