Analytical, Physical, and Numerical Modeling in Geotechnical Engineering

Pile foundations are generally categorized as deep foundations, where slender column type elements are used to transfer the super-structural load to a deeper soil stratum and the imposed load is supported through the end and shaft resistance. The load capacity of in-place pile is greatly influenced by the strength and stiffness characteristics of the surrounding soil layers. In this regard, the present study envisions to explore the influence of soil dilatancy and varying stiffness profile along the pile depth on the estimated pile load capacity. A FEM based numerical investigation has been conducted here to compute the vertical load capacity of a lab-scale in-place pile employing ABAQUS. For this purpose, two different stiffness profiles of the soil domain have been considered, one with varying stiffness replicating the influence of soil overburden and the other one having a constant average stiffness magnitude. In addition, multiple dilatancy angle (\(\psi\)) values have also been considered varying between 0° to the friction angle (ɸ) of the soil medium. The impact of these parameters on the estimated load capacity of in-place pile have been examined by considering both the shaft resistance (SR) and end resistance (ER), along with an assessment over the evolution of influence zone around the pile tip.

Understanding the anchor's behaviour when placed as single, double or multiple in soil and predicting the ultimate capacity under uplift loading are essential in foundation design. In this study, the undrained uplift capacity of the anchor is evaluated using finite element (FE) method for single, double, and multiple strip anchors embedded in clay at different depths. The vertical uplift loading conditions are assigned to a rigid anchor plate which is rough at the top and smooth at bottom to evaluate the uplift capacity at ultimate failure conditions. This study considers only the contribution of soil cohesion. Other factors like installation, flexibility of anchor, self-weight, etc., are not considered. The present study results are compared with those available in the literature. The present study FE results revealed that the behaviour of anchor or anchors under uplift loading depends on the anchor embedment depth, the properties of soil and spacing between the anchors. This analysis provides beneficial results, which are represented as normalized design charts to benefit its usage in the professional practice of soil anchor problem.

A finite element three-dimensional model has been developed to study the dynamic effect of high-speed trains on the track-embankment system using LUSAS. The rails and sleepers have been represented by thick beam elements, whereas, 8-noded hexahedral linear elements were used for the ballast and the embankment. A search area was considered as a thick shell linear quadrilateral surface element to represent the rail path. The loads were applied on the rail directly by composite axle definition to create the train. The dynamic responses of the track-embankment system, i.e., displacement and acceleration have been observed. Different California Bearing Ratio (CBR) values are considered to define the stiffness of the embankment. The graphical representations between CBR values and dynamic responses of moving train on embankment are depicted. Results indicate that at CBR = 15, peak vertical displacement is noted which decreases gradually as CBR increases. Notably, at CBR = 15, once the speed exceeds the critical speed (46 m/s = 165.6 kmph) the vertical amplitude reduces and ultimately attains a constant value = 2.4 mm, which is about 80% to that of the peak value. This tendency prevails irrespective of CBR values. Variation of support condition below the embankment is also studied by introducing different sub-grade modulus.

Ground stabilization using granular piles (GPs) and rafts is the optimal method for enhancing the foundation of embankments and structures on soft soils. This approach involves utilizing three components, namely the raft, GPs, and soil, to distribute loads to the subsurface. The current research investigates a group of two floating granular piles rafts (2 GPRs), utilizing an elastic continuum technique through analytical examination, considering various parameters of both the raft and piles, such as raft size, pile length, and spacing between the 2 GPRs. The parametric analysis was conducted by taking into account the settlement compatibility between the interface of the GP and soil, as well as the raft and soil. The settlement influence factor (SIF) of a GP with a rigid raft on top is evaluated to determine the overall response, considering the 2 GPRs, rigid raft alone, and pile alone. Based on the results, design charts are developed to aid in the design process.

This study investigates the efficacy of cemented stone columns and encased cemented stone columns for enhancing settlement and bearing capacity in soft soils through numerical simulation and experimental validation. Utilizing PLAXIS 3D software, the Mohr–Coulomb model was employed to simulate the behavior of stone column materials and soft clay soils. Experimental work focused on columns constructed with various proportions of demolition aggregate and natural aggregate: 100% Natural, 25% Demolition +75% Natural, 50% Demolition +50% Natural, 75% Demolition +25% Natural, and 100% Demolition aggregate. The study further explored the effects of bamboo encasement and varying length-to-diameter (L/D) ratios (4, 6, and 8) on performance. Results indicated that the optimal load-carrying capacity was achieved with the 75% Demolition aggregate and 25% Natural aggregate combination, which demonstrated approximately 75–80% of the load-bearing capacity, compared to columns with 100% Natural aggregate. Comparison between experimental and numerical results revealed minor deviations. Notably, single stone columns reduced settlement by 1% to 5%, while groups of stone columns reduced settlement by up to 46% in soft soil conditions. The findings underscore the effectiveness of using cemented stone columns and bamboo encasements in improving the load-bearing capacity and reducing settlement in soft soils, providing valuable insights for practical applications in geotechnical engineering.

India is going through a rapid transformation in terms of rapid urbanization and infrastructure development during the last few decades. This rapid transformation is directly affecting the construction industry as the rate of urbanization is very fast. Rapid growth of urbanization has some merits and demerits. It is helping all sorts of communities from an economic point of view, but it is also taking its toll on available free lands. Near future, we will see an inevitable scenario where high-rise and low-rise buildings are coexisting side by side. In this context, we have observed that during the construction of a high-rise structure in Kolkata, a nearby low-rise structure is getting affected. In this study, an effort has been made to observe the settlement of an existing low-rise structure by varying the excavation depth. A numerical study has been used by using PLAXIS 2D finite element software to calculate the settlement of an existing low-rise structure due to deep excavation in the adjacent project site. Soil exploration results obtained from the Flat Dilatometer test (DMT) is used for modeling purpose. Besides we have tried to provide a solution to this problem by conducting two case studies (i.e. Case 1 and Case 2). In Case 1, timber piles are provided along the boundary of the excavation work and in Case 2, diaphragm walls are provided along the boundary of the excavation work. Finally, it is observed that in both the case studies, provision of these shoring methods are able to reduce the amount of settlement of the existing low-rise structure with varying excavation depth.

Liquefaction causes catastrophic damage in the form of foundation failures and structural instabilities. In this study, an earthen embankment constructed on loose saturated cohesionless soil is modelled using finite element analysis considering plane strain condition in PLAXIS 2D. An advanced constitutive model, UBC3D-PLM, which describes the mechanical behaviour of soils under cyclic loading is implemented. The model is calibrated using data from the cyclic direct simple shear test results of the foundation soil and validated using the results of centrifuge tests available in the literature. Three practical dynamic boundary conditions, such as tied degrees of freedom, free field elements and viscous boundary conditions are adopted in the finite element simulations. Emphasis is laid on the possibilities and limitations of each type of boundary condition. Stage wise modelling procedure is adopted to appropriately produce the initial conditions for the foundation soil, embankment, and hydrostatic pore pressure before applying the seismic excitation. A set of eleven seismic ground motions based on moderate to large intensity earthquakes is given as input to the finite element model and the dynamic response of the embankment is studied along with the liquefaction of the foundation soil. It is concluded that the finite element method is capable of simulating the realistic response of the embankment resting on liquefiable soil deposits.

Control of soil deformation during deep excavation in crowded metropolitan environment is essential to ensure safety of existing neighboring structures and infrastructures. The Literature study of deep excavations based upon numerical modeling addresses the effect of corner by 2D and 3D FEM formulation. 3D FEM models give realistic field conditions to accurately represent the soil response. Along with numerical analyses, the physical modeling is a significant part of geotechnical engineering which can be used to simulate three-dimensional field conditions. By adopting the physical modeling using geotechnical centrifuge, this paper aims to explore the effects of deep excavations with diaphragm wall in cohesionless soil. The centrifuge experiments are designed to simulate plain-strain condition and 3D behavior. A series of centrifuge tests will be carried out for loose sand, medium dense sand, and dense sand profiles at varying depth of excavation ranging from 1 to 5 m. The probable outcomes of these experiments will be recorded in terms of horizontal displacement of diaphragm wall and settlement profiles of the soil behind it caused by an adjacent deep excavation.

The piled raft foundation (PRF) system is proven to be an effective solution for high-rise buildings. These foundations have a more significant effect on both total and differential settlement, which in turn improves the stability of the structure. Analysis of PRF using soil springs is a popular approach for practicing engineers. In a simplified model, the response of a PRF is strongly influenced by the behavior of the underlying soil, specifically by the subgrade modulus. Studies on the subgrade modulus of the PRF under combined vertical, horizontal, and moment (V-H-M) loading are limited. This study examines the effect of V-H-M loading on the distribution of subgrade modulus below raft. A three-dimensional (3D) numerical analysis of PRF comprising of 3 × 3 pile configuration embedded in sand is performed using Finite Element Analysis (FEA). Soil is modelled as 3D continua and its behaviour is simulated using the Mohr–Coulomb constitutive model. The subgrade modulus at the base of the raft is estimated from the 3D FEA by dividing the contact pressure at the desired point of the raft by the displacement at that point. The subgrade modulus in lateral and vertical directions for raft are examined considering V-H-M loading and compared with values when only vertical and horizontal loads are applied.

Static liquefaction is a phenomenon predominantly associated with the saturated loose sand subjected to undrained condition due to rapid loading. In such case, the shear strength of the sand decreases significantly owing to increase in the pore-water pressure and subsequent reduction in the mean effective stress level. For investigating the mechanism behind the static liquefaction, micro-level analysis can be very useful, which enables to capture valuable insights from the particle level interaction. Hence, particle-based numerical methods like discrete element method (DEM) is often used to examine the grain scale attributes. Existing DEM-based studies on the undrained behavior of sand reveals limited insight regarding the strain rate effects on static liquefaction phenomena. In the present study, constant volume 3D DEM simulation of undrained triaxial test has been performed on the loose sand specimen at various strain rates. The effect of increasing strain rate on the macro-level response, such as stress–strain, pore-water pressure and inertial number has been analyzed here. Further, the macro-level response has been examined in light of the micro-level attributes, such as force chains, coordination number and redundancy index. With increasing strain rate, significant reduction in the generation of pore-water pressure has been observed due to the suppressed particle rearrangement. As a result, an increase can be noticed in the peak deviatoric stress, wherein the complete liquefaction of the specimen occurs at higher strain levels. Significant reductions in the coordination number and redundancy index have also been noticed within the specimen at the complete liquefaction state attributed to large particle rolling and sliding.

Prediction of the ultimate pile capacity and settlement at working load remains one of the key challenges in geotechnical engineering field. Static pile load test result of a large diameter pile is discussed in this paper. The pile load test results are interpreted using various interpreting methods such as Chin’s method, Decourt method, Tangent method, and Kulhawy’s method to arrive at the ultimate pile load capacity. Also, variation of working load based on IS Code is also illustrated. The pile settlement data are back analyzed by analytical methods and 2D numerical modeling. Major influence factors affecting pile capacity such as soil strata, condition at pile toe, soil and pile interface, and drilling fluid are also discussed. This paper highlights the ability of the numerical simulation to get reasonable estimates of the settlements.

The nonlinear behavior of the soil demands the direct method of the analysis of a soil-structure interaction (SSI) problem. In the direct method, the soil and structure systems are solved simultaneously using a finite element or finite difference method. However, this method is computationally expensive and demands high-computational resources in terms of storage and computational time. Further, reliability analysis of SSI problems needs repeated runs of the original finite element code for different values of uncertain parameters. This increases the computational cost significantly. In this paper, this issue is addressed systematically using reduced order models (ROMs). ROMs are successfully applied in various engineering fields, such as fluid dynamics, optimization, and structural dynamics. However, their applicability to SSI problems still needs to be addressed. The current work explores the suitability of a non-intrusive ROM for nonlinear SSI problems. A non-intrusive ROM does not require knowing the governing equations explicitly and thus can be used with any commercial solvers. First, the accuracy of the ROM is established for a beam on nonlinear Winkler foundation. Then, their efficiency is studied for reliability analysis. The estimates from the ROM are compared with direct Monte Carlo simulation, importance sampling, and the first-order reliability method. Numerical studies show that the ROM yields accurate results and efficiently estimates the reliability or failure probability. It is concluded from the numerical observations that the ROM is an efficient alternative tool for the reliability analysis of SSI problems.

The paper presents the finite element analysis of a consolidating unit cell model, comprising a soft soil with a single prefabricated vertical drain (PVD) under a prescribed surcharge load. In this regard, the response of a soft soil column containing a PVD is assessed during its consolidation phase. In the current study, the PVD has been modeled considering the drainage line element available in PLAXIS 2D and soft soil material model is used for defining the cohesive soil. An axisymmetric 2D analysis of the unit cell containing the soft soil with a PVD has been carried out considering a uniform surcharge load until 90% consolidation is achieved. Further, an assessment of the same considering an equivalent plane strain condition is also undertaken. Hird’s permeability compatibility approach has been employed to comprehend the consolidation characteristics of the PVD improved soft soil with geometric configuration and soft soil properties. The material properties of the soft clay in the current study is considered from soft soil site of ultra-mega power project at Krishnapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India (KUMPP). Comparatives from the outcomes between axisymmetric and plane strain condition was scrutinized to illustrate the differences and agreements between the two approaches and ascertain the predominant influence of horizontal hydraulic conductivity in the consolidation of soft soil. It is observed that the consolidation rate in 2D axisymmetric condition is rapid upto degree of consolidation of 15% as compared to that noted for the plane strain condition. Beyond 15% of degree of consolidation, the consolidation rate for the axisymmetric condition is found to be slower than the equivalent plane strain condition.

The railway network has always acted as one of the most favored modes of transportation owing to its ability to haul heavy loads at an economical price point. For the rapid growth of the economy and industries, the need for an increase in train speed instigates the need for advanced infrastructure facilities such as slab tracks in place of ballasted tracks. The primary idea of incorporating a slab track is its ability to withstand high axle load with limited deformation. Hence, it becomes essential to understand the behavior of these slab tracks under high-speed rail loads. However, creating real-life models of rail sections and testing them will be a costly affair. Hence, researchers and field engineers’ resort to analyzing through computational methods such as the finite element method. In the present study, an attempt has been made to compare the performance of slab and ballasted track placed under two different conditions (i.e., Slab and Ballasted track on ground and embankment). The above cases were modeled in PLAXIS 3D and analyzed for their performance under dynamic conditions. The dynamic responses such as displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the track are analyzed. It has been observed that the vertical displacement in ballasted track is about 3 times as that of slab track, and it depends on the stiffness properties of the track and soil below the track. The performance of the ballasted track is more influenced by the properties of soil just below the track as compared to the slab track.

Deep soil mixing (DSM) is an in-situ soil mixing process using binders like cement, lime, and flyash in slurry or powder form to create a column-like structure to enhance soil strength with reduced permeability and compressibility. The DSM technique has advantages like quick construction, lower noise and vibrations, and environmental friendly implementation. This technique has variety of applications for temporary and permanent structures in soft clays, loose deposits, and organic soils for both onshore and offshore construction. Before DSM technique is applied in field, laboratory experimental trials are necessary to finalize the optimum binder dosage and water-binder ratio. However, it is not always economical/feasible to perform detailed experimental studies for DSM. The solution for such issues is using numerical analysis with software like PLAXIS 3D. Furthermore, such studies help in extrapolation of results for different cases that are not experimentally studied. In current study, numerical analysis using PLAXIS 3D has been performed for embankment (with and without surcharge load) supported on deep soil mixed column (DSMC) modified soft clay. The preliminary investigation using PLAXIS 3D modeling for boundary sensitivity, meshing, and plane strain conditions have been accomplished and parametric studies by varying DSMC diameter and length have been carried to compare the settlement and excess pore water pressure characteristics. The maximum settlement and pore water pressure values were noted to be significantly reduce, viz. settlement reduces from 0.561 m to 0.080 m and excess pore water pressure from 21.19 kPa to 6.03 kPa, respectively, for soil combinations with and without DSMC. It is opined that such studies would be useful in optimizing the DSM design for different infrastructure projects that require ground improvement.

The foundation system is designed to transfer the super structural load to the underneath soil stratum in such a way that it does not exceed the permissible value of shearing resistance of underneath soil and also within the permissible value of settlement of footing. The selection of appropriate ground improvement techniques can eliminate the necessity of deep footing. In this selection of ground improvement technique, the use of reinforcement in granular soil has been proven a very effective technique in case of shallow footing, but the load–deformation response of strip footing on the reinforced granular field is completely different from the load–deformation response of strip footing resting on the unreinforced granular field. Therefore, a proper standard is needed to determine the bearing pressure of strip footing laying on a reinforced granular field. The purpose of this study is to make a guide-line for bearing capacity factor (Nγ) based on the normalized settlement ratio (s/B) of strip footing resting on a reinforced granular field. The numerical modeling of strip footing resting on reinforced granular soil has been developed and verified with small-scale physical model test. The layout parameters of reinforced footing like the horizontal length of reinforcement (l), vertical distance of first reinforcement layer (u) are kept constant, whereas the number of reinforcement layers (N) and spacing between two reinforcement layers (h) are changed.

The raising of structure in the sloping part of Himalayan areas have motivated the researchers to consider the effect of soil slope-structure interaction (SSSI). The soil and slope condition can influence the seismic response of buildings through SSSI phenomenon. The interaction behavior of soil-structure in a slope has a critical impact on development of shear band due to strain localization and thus stability of slope. The main reason to study this behavior of strain accumulation in slope is due to tendency of progressive failure in slope mass under seismic condition. In this paper, effect of strain localization in slope have been carried using finite element (FE) simulation. The strain localization in soil slope have been analyzed with material modeling, boundaries, SSI effect, and magnification factor response for varying height of buildings on varying slopes. Three boundaries were implemented to study these parameters and maximum reduction of responses were found with infinite element boundary. The study recommend that, the mid-rise height of structure reduces amplification response with inclinations. The approach discussed in the study can be implemented to ensure risk reduction with sustainable infrastructure development under seismic performance.

This paper presents a parametric study on small-scale model to evaluate the reduction of earth pressure by using Geofoam as a compressible inclusion between retaining wall and backfill. The parameters considered for the study are thickness and density of Geofoam and surcharge load on backfill. The numerical simulation is done using Finite Difference software FLAC 3D. A field test simulation is also conducted for yielding and non-yielding 6 m high retaining wall. With the increase in thickness and decrease in the density of Geofoam the lateral earth pressure reduces. The displacement of the backfill toward the wall is increasing by using Geofoam leading to reduction of earth pressure and attaining active earth pressure condition. The use of Geofoam is observed to be effective in case of non-yielding retaining wall as compared to yielding retaining wall.

Increased use of fossil fuel for energy generation releases the greenhouse gases like N₂O, CO₂, etc. at an alarming rate, which causes a significant alteration in the environment. As an alternative, the geothermal energy pile (GEP) can be utilized as a sustainable source of energy for heating and cooling of buildings. In this direction, an attempt is made to study the thermo-mechanical behavior of GEPs installed in Godavari River basin soil which falls under the effective geothermal zone. Finite element analysis using PLAXIS 2D was carried out on an axially loaded energy pile of 1 m diameter to find out stress distribution and thermal conductivity of the pile by varying the length to diameter ratio (L/d) of pile (i.e., 10, 15, and 20) and considering stratified soil conditions. The constitutive models used in analysis for soil and pile are Mohr–coulomb model and linear elastic model, respectively. The behavior of the pile has been studied under seasonal variation by changing the temperature combined under mechanical loading. The results show that the above-mentioned parameters have minimal impact on the load carrying capacity of GEPs. Due to the impact of thermo-mechanical load, maximum displacement is observed in the soil near to the pile surface. Moreover, GEPs under higher temperature conditions have shown more displacement than under normal temperature conditions. From these studies, it was found that the GEP is an effective technique to control the temperature inside the buildings by utilizing the earth’s energy.

This paper presents the experimental results from tests carried out on a geosynthetic reinforced soil (GRS) bridge abutment constructed at 1/9 scale using sand as a backfill material, geogrid as reinforcement, and modular concrete block as a facing element. The performance of the abutment was studied in terms of bridge seat settlement and lateral facing displacement at the end of construction and after the application of augmented train loading for axle loads of 17 T, 25 T, and 40 T moving at a speed of 400 kmph, 300 kmph, and 120 kmph, respectively. It is observed that after the application of the bridge load, there is a significant change in the facing displacement and the seat settlement. Whereas, after applying the trainload, no notable change in facing displacement was observed. However, there was a significant change in the bridge seat settlement, the maximum facing displacement and the seat settlement values are within the permissible limits as suggested by FHWA.

Kaolin is a common clay mineral which has been used in various scientific and industrial applications. The surface chemistry and inter molecular physics of the kaolin particle is quite complex and has been less studied. A very few studies at molecular level are available. Therefore, in this study, an effort is made to study the interaction between kaolin–kaolin surface using molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The interaction between the plates has been analyzed under the fully saturated state for 200nS interaction time at NTP condition. The stability of the simulation has been assured by using three different statistical parameters, i.e., root mean squared deviation (RMSD), root mean squared fluctuation (RMSF), and radius of gyration (R_g). The simulation study reveals the various inter particle forces (bonded and non-bonded) between the kaolin–kaolin particle and the kaolin-water particle. Apart from the interactions the study reveals the density profile and diffusion coefficient of the water around the kaolin plate. The insights gained from these simulations have practical implementation in fields such as geotechnical engineering, geology, and environmental science.

Under-reamed piles are generally bored cast in-situ concrete piles having single or multi-bulb by enlarging the stem of the pile. Due to its enlarged bearing surface of the bulb, under-reamed piles have a greater load carrying capacity compared to pile with uniform cross-sectional area. This study presents the numerical investigations on single and group under-reamed piles in soft cohesive soil to understand the deformation behavior of under-reamed pile foundation under different loading conditions. Three different configurations of under-reamed bulbs were considered in this study. A three-dimensional finite element analysis using PLAXIS 3D has been conducted assuming Mohr–coulomb model to simulate the behavior of soil and the performance of the single and group under-reamed piles with one bulb subjected to both compression and tension were studied. From the analysis results, it was observed that use of under-reamed pile is more suitable in tension than in compression in cohesive soil and an enhancement of 147% in tensile capacity was found for single under-reamed pile. Also bottom position of bulb was found to be more effective specially under tensile load. Group efficiency value depends on many factors like number of piles in the group, pile spacing, configuration of under-reamed bulb and loading condition. Under compression, optimum pile spacing in the pile group was observed as 2.5 times the diameter of the under-reamed bulb while maximum efficiency under tensile load was found at the pile spacing of 3.5 times the diameter of the under-reamed bulb.

Research on autonomous vehicles (AV) has made significant progress in the transportation industry in recent years. Currently, the pavement system is not being constructed or maintained to accommodate this new group of vehicles. Pavement is an intricate structure that consists of multiple layers of different materials that influence its behavior under various stresses. The impact of AVs on the pavement system is uncertain. This study adopts a three-dimensional finite element method (FEM) to investigate the behavior of rutting and fatigue distress due to loading the AV wheel in a dedicated lane. The effect of parameters such as the lane width (L_av) and the speed (V_av) of the AVs has been discussed. The findings indicate that the concentration of wheel path of AV traffic on the dedicated lane accelerates rutting and fatigue distress that could reduce overall pavement performance. The simulation results are compared with those of the IITPAVE software.

In general, the interactive loads, viz. axial (V), shear (H), and moment (M), act together and are transferred from associated columns to the foundation located on an undrained clay slope. In addition, the combined load effect on the foundation’s capacity is generally estimated using a decoupled approach and is primarily unavailable in standards and literature. After conducting finite element limit analyses using OptumG2 software, this article estimates the limit loads for a strip foundation resting on undrained clay slopes with zero edge distance. Finally, the V-H-M capacity envelope is developed using modified ‘Probe’ analyses. A detailed comparison between the capacity envelopes of the same foundations located on flat ground and slopes is presented to underline the effect of slope inclination, β, subjected to different load combinations.

A strip footing of width B resting on the horizontal side of the c-ϕ soil slope has been analyzed, and the combined bearing capacity factor (N_cγ) has been determined considering the Mohr–Coulomb failure criteria. The present study conducted Finite Element Limit Analysis (FELA) on strip footing by incorporating both lower and upper bound theorems. The effect of cohesion (c), angle of internal friction (ϕ), edge distance (e/B) and slope angle (β) on N_cγ, when a strip footing placed on horizontal side of slope are studied and failure patterns are also investigated. The study shows that N_cγ increases with an increase in cohesion, angle of internal friction and edge distance but vice versa in the case of slope angle, where N_cγ decreases with an increase in slope angle. Extensive numerical analysis has been conducted on N_cγ in order to determine the relative importance of various input parameters. To aid design engineers in determining the bearing capacity factor of strip footing, design charts and reduction coefficient tables are developed based on an evaluation of the influence of several parameters and geometrical features.

Pile foundation becomes the immediate choice when the shallow footing foundation is not possible. Pile foundations have been successfully adopted across the wide range of ground conditions with suitable design and construction aspects. However, when piles are to be used close to or over the sloping ground, its load capacity is to be ascertained with due care, keeping in view the lack of confinement away from the slope surface. The degree of confinement will be controlled by the slope angle, type of soil and loading conditions. For this sloping ground situation, lateral pile capacity is more important than vertical load capacity, particularly when the load acts away from the slope. Researchers have been working on pile capacity when the piles are near or on the sloping ground. The present study made an attempt to study the lateral load capacity (LLC) of piles located over sloping ground and the influence of vertical load using both laboratory model tests and numerical modelling (PLAXIS 3D). The study concludes that the LLC of piles increases with the increase in aspect ratio of piles irrespective of single or group and decreases with the slope angle greater than 11⁰. The vertical load on the piles has shown an improvement in LLC of both single and group of piles by 11–7% for the slopes of 0⁰, 11⁰ and 18⁰, the more advantages for higher aspect ratio piles.