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Dieser Artikel geht auf die Ermöglichungsfaktoren für die Einführung von Mobility as a Service (MaaS) in asiatischen, afrikanischen und lateinamerikanischen Städten ein und konzentriert sich auf die Demonstrationsstädte des SOLUTIONSplus-Projekts. Darin werden das MaaS-Niveau und der Umsetzungsprozess in diesen Städten bewertet und die Fortschritte und Herausforderungen hervorgehoben. Die Analyse identifiziert 20 ermöglichende Faktoren, die in Technologie, Organisation und Umwelt kategorisiert werden und für die erfolgreiche Einführung von MaaS entscheidend sind. Der Artikel kommt zu dem Schluss, dass zwar stetige Fortschritte in Richtung intelligenter und integrierter Transportsysteme zu verzeichnen sind, aber mehrere Barrieren im Zusammenhang mit Digitalisierung, Transportsystemen und Governance überwunden werden müssen, um eine praktikable Umsetzung von MaaS in Entwicklungsländern zu erreichen. Es wird ein schrittweiser Ansatz vorgeschlagen, beginnend mit der schrittweisen Integration der Betreiber öffentlicher Verkehrsmittel in eine digitale Plattform.
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Abstract
The EU-funded SOLUTIONSplus project, which aims at kick starting urban e-mobility in developing countries, included the provision of a white label app customizable to the needs of the cities as part of its offer to its 7 demonstration cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America. Despite having the possibility of testing the customized app free of charge for the duration of the project, only 2 out of 7 cities, Quito (Ecuador) and Kigali (Rwanda), started and continued the process. Yet, only Quito was able to test the customized app in real operations. Thus, the paper analyzes the MaaS level and implementation barriers of the 7 cities and conducts an in-depth expert assessment of the technology, organization and environment enabling factors (TOE) to implement the MaaS concept in Quito, Kathmandu and Kigali. The results show that despite some progress towards an intelligent and integrated transport system in the analyzed cities, an important number of conditions that are a given in the Global North (e.g.: formality and integration of PT system), still need to be met in cities in developing countries before MaaS could be realized.
1 Introduction
In an increasingly urbanized world, where more than half of the global population already lives in cities (2/3 by 2050), digital technologies will have a pivotal role in advancing sustainable urban development and formulating effective policies and measures for climate change mitigation. In parallel, the emergence of new mobility concepts and the widespread use of smartphones worldwide has brought along the emergence of a significant number of mobility applications aimed at improving the efficiency of urban mobility services both for freight and passenger transport. Local and international mobility (and micromobility) apps such as Uber (Eats), Ola, Gojek, SafeBoda, Glovo, PedidosYA, tembici, Moveo, etc. already operate in Africa, Asia and Latin America, showing the great penetration and potential that app-based mobility services already have in the Global South. The integration of such services under the Mobility as a Service (MaaS) concept could contribute to modal shift and reduced energy consumption [2, 3].
MaaS is a new transport and mobility concept that integrates existing and new mobility services (NMS) into a single digital platform, providing customized mobility options and offering personalized trip planning and digital payment possibilities [1]. MaaS has the potential to improve the travelling experience, reduce travelers’ costs, efficiently manage travel demand, and improve environmental and social outcomes [2‐4]. MaaS has been gaining popularity in Europe / the Global North and has been implemented in several cities with positive results related to sustainable and low-carbon mobility [2, 3]. However, in developing countries, in contexts of fragmented and often informal public transport systems, lack of data, cash economies, low digitalization levels, the implementation of such a concept comes with a lot of challenges [5]. While important scholarly contributions have been made to understand the barriers and enablers of MaaS [5‐8], these studies primarily rely on literature reviews and expert interviews. In this article, we contribute to this body of knowledge–which has mainly focused on the European context– by validating these findings with data from real-world MaaS schemes in the global South.
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The EU-funded SOLUTIONSplus project, which aims at kick starting urban e-mobility in developing countries, included the provision of a white label app customizable to the needs of the cities to enable access to the e-mobility services for the end-users as part of its offer to its 7 demonstration cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America [9]. In a MaaS approach, the app offered the integration of all services, payment and information useful for the end-users allowing the possibility of integrating e-bikes, e-3-wheelers, e-taxis, etc. to the existing public transport (PT) system.
Thus, the purpose of this paper is to define and analyze the enabling conditions needed to adopt the MaaS concept in developing countries. The analysis starts by assessing the MaaS level and the implementation process in the 7 SOLUTIONSplus demonstration cities in Asia, Africa and Latin America (Sect. 2.1). The analysis of the enabling factors in Sect. 2.2 focuses on Kigali, Kathmandu and Quito, the 3 cities in which the feasibility of implementation of a MaaS app in the context of the project was further explored.
2 Analysis
2.1 MaaS Level and Pilot Implementation in SOLUTIONSplus Cities
In an attempt to create a comparison tool for the level of penetration of the MaaS concept in different cities, Sochor et al. (2018) propose a topology that consists of 5 levels based on the degree of integration [10], i.e.: 0 - no integration; 1 - integration of information; 2 - integration of booking and payment; 3 - integration of the service offer; 4 - integration of societal goals. As it can be seen in Table 1, the 7 SOLUTIONSplus cities fall between the Levels 0 (in transition to 1) and 2. This means that most cities already have access to some sort of route planning app and the more advanced ones are already in the process of integrating the in-app payment functionality.
Regarding the level of implementation under the SOLUTIONSplus project, it is shown that despite having the possibility of testing the customized app free of charge for the duration of the project, only 2 out of 7 cities, Quito (Ecuador) and Kigali (Rwanda), started and continued the process. Yet, only Quito was able to test the customized app in real operations. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that other demonstration cities such as Hanoi, Dar Es Salaam and Montevideo have taken their own path to develop mobility apps for specific needs.
Table 1.
MaaS level and implementation in SOLUTIONSplus cities
City
MaaS level
Level of MaaS implementation under SOLUTIONSplus
Africa
Kigali
L1
Discussions between the SOLUTIONSplus team and the representatives of the City of Kigali to develop a customized MaaS app took place between July 2021 and May 2023. However, a joint decision not to pursue it due to high constraints and limited time was taken.
Dar Es Salaam
L0 in transition to 1
Dar Es Salaam is developing its own planning and ticketing app for which the SOLUTIONSplus team had an advisory role. The conditions to implement a MaaS app between BRT buses and paratransit modes are not in place yet.
Asia
Kathmandu
L0 in transition to 1
After a prefeasibility assessment conducted by DTU [11], it was determined that the conditions to implement a MaaS app were not yet in place in Kathmandu. In particular, related to the lack of an intelligent transport system, a business model and the regulations to incentivize transport operators to take part in a MaaS platform.
Hanoi
L2
It was decided to put all efforts in the development of a booking app for the e-2-wheelers being implemented in the pilot.
Pasig
L1
The governance of PT in Pasig would have required the involvement of a larger number of stakeholders, including the national government. Due to the complexity, after the assessment it was decided not to pursue it.
Latin America
Montevideo
L1 in transition to L2
The Municipality of Montevideo declined the offer arguing that they already have their own municipal app called “Como ir”, which at the moment only allows trip planning, but is supposed to integrate in-app payment once the ticket validators in the buses are replaced
Quito
L1
A customized MaaS app including a trip planner, in-app payment and e-ticketing was developed in close collaboration with the municipal PTOs (BRTs and subway). In order to address the specific needs of the city, two complements were added: 1) a web app to top up the e-wallet with cash in the ticket booth and 2) A mobile app to validate the e-tickets until the automatic turnstiles are procured and installed in all stations. The 3 apps were piloted in Q4 2022 with 50 university students for a period of 4 weeks in 1 BRT station. The circumstances that led to the pilot implementation in Quito were: 1) the imminent launch of the subway line, by which the city is in the process of modernizing and integrating the PT system, which encompasses the Integrated Payment System (SIR), the Data Exploitation System (SAE) and the User Information System (SIU). The Municipality was reluctant to continue and scale-up the pilot due to the lack of knowledge of the new authorities about the MaaS concept, the regulatory framework for its implementation and the linkage to and benefits for the SIR. The main concerns were related to the business model and costs after the project end, as well as the ownership of the data and the application.
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2.2 The Enabling Environment in Quito, Kathmandu and Kigali
A literature review was conducted to investigate the main requirements, but also the barriers that have been defined / identified both in the Global North and South for the implementation of the MaaS concept [5‐7]. Based on that and following the methodology applied by Hasselwander et al. (2022), the technology, organization and environment (TOE) framework was used to classify what from now on will be called enabling factors [5]. A total of 20 number of variables have been identified as enabling factors for MaaS implementation. The elements considered under Technology refer to the level of digitalization in the selected cities. In terms of Organization enablers, policies, plans and the governance structure related to digitalization of transport and intelligent transport systems were analyzed. Under Environment, the enabling factors are related to the integration level of the public transport system and other transport services.
The results of the analysis using the TOE framework are summarized in Figs. 1, 2 and 3. As it can be seen, only very few factors are fully met in the 3 cities. Nevertheless, in most factors the Quito, Kathmandu and Kigali comply partially, which means there is already some level of advancement.
Fig. 1.
Technology enabling factors in Quito, Kathmandu and Kigali
As it has been shown throughout the paper, the implementation of the MaaS concept require the fulfillment of a set of technology, organization and environment conditions. The MaaS level analysis shows that despite the fact that some of the analyzed cities are still in level 0, they are already transitioning to level 1. Most cities are in level 1, some transitioning to level 2. Thus, the cities analyzed, despite their differences, reveal a slow, but steady progress towards the adoption of the features of an intelligent and integrated transport system that will enable MaaS. There are, however, still a series of barriers that need to be overcome related to the digitalization level, as well as in the transport system and governance, before the MaaS concept implementation is feasible in developing countries. A step-by-step approach could be desirable, starting by the gradual integration of all PTOs into the system in one digital platform and then the addition of other mobility service providers.
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Analyzing the Enabling Factors to Implement MaaS in Asian, African and Latin American Cities
Verfasst von
María Rosa Muñoz B.
George Panagakos
Shritu Shrestha
Emilie Martin
Marc Hasselwander
Samuel Bonsu
Grace López Realpe
Fabio Bachetti
Michael Bruhn Barfod
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