There is limited recognized Information and Communication Technology (ICT) waste management practices for waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges in Windhoek. The inappropriate management of ICT waste is detrimental to human health and environment. The aim of the study was to determine the status of management strategies of waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges in Windhoek, and develop a framework on ICT waste management techniques within the municipality, including critical stakeholders. Data was obtained from 60 respondents through structured questionnaires and open-ended questionnaires distributed to target groups. A comprehensive multivariate statistical procedure, including partial least squares structural equation, was employed. The findings highlight that management has a significant positive relationship with the management practices of ICT waste, with a t-value of 1.326 and a P value of 0.093. There is a significant positive influence of disposal on management and awareness of management of ICT waste. Consumption has a significant effect on the management of ICT waste, but has the lowest path coefficient. The partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) was used to analyze complex relationships between variables. The highest cumulative percentage of selected variables was 81.43%, with different eigenvalues and percentage variance from nine selected components. The reduced model showed a path coefficient of 0.200, which emphasizes a positive relationship between the independent variable and the latent dependent variable. The model had an R2 value of 4%, indicating variations in the overall quality of the waste management process. The extended model showed a substantial R2 value of 41.9%, and management had the highest path coefficient of 0.516. The path coefficients indicate a positive relationship between latent independent variables and dependent variables. It is suggested that the proposed model should be used to address management challenges of ICT waste. The model should provide strategic directions in ICT waste management and foster the adoption of sustainable oriented solutions.
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Introduction
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) waste is considered a global problem and one of the most swiftly cumulative waste streams around the world. The global demand for ICT products contributes to their continuous exponential increase [2]. There are numerous factors influencing the rapid increase of ICT waste, such as hasty technological advancement, high consumption, transformation in media production, affordability of ICT products, industrialization, and limited lifespan of ICT products [3]. Currently, the daily lifestyle of people relies immensely on technology and requires the use of modern technology [4]. This waste stream is expected to be the fastest growing due to the high demand for ICT products, which contributes to the increase in ICT waste generation [4].
ICT products such as printers comprise toxic materials and need to be handled with utmost care upon disposal, and this includes lead, mercury, arsenic, chromium, cadmium, and plastics [4]. In a study conducted by Golev et al. [5], it was indicated that most of the modern ICT products comprise over 40 diverse metals and elements with varying impacts on the environment. In addition, ICT waste also encompasses bio-accumulative hazards and toxins confined to metals and plastic components, which are detrimental to humans and the environment [4].
Anzeige
Mihai et al. [2] emphasized that countries in the global south are still using rudimentary methods in dismantling ICT waste, and this poses serious human health risks due to the exposure of people to contaminants. Nyeko et al. [3] stated that ICT waste is inadequately managed in the informal sectors, and it is often disposed of at landfills, burned, dismantled, and reused. The practice of burning ICT waste has a damaging impact on the environment and human health because it discharges toxic gases in the air, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), which are hazardous and can cause cancer [6]. Alani et al. [7] echoed that countries such as Nigeria and numerous countries in Africa continue to burn ICT waste because they lack formal recycling facilities, and a rudimentary recycling process is the most common technique used in the recovery of economically valuable metals. Evidently, if this practice continues unabated, it will ultimately result in environmental and human health risks. Nigeria consented to the Basel Convention on Transboundary Movement of Hazardous Waste as well as their Disposal, but no attempt has been made to date to establish a recycling facility as a measure to reduce ICT waste accumulation. According to Martin et al. [8], Africa is still experiencing difficulties with inadequate scientific information on the management of e-waste, including the motives for the data deficiency. Ghana is one of the countries in Africa that imports more ICT waste and has the largest recycling facility on the continent. The same study stated that approximately 40,000 tons of ICT waste are being imported into the country every year. In a related study by Liu et al. [9], it was revealed that the lifespan of e-waste is limited to a short period, which results in high production and poses a danger to the environment. Dzah et al. [10] explained that effective management of e-waste requires certain interventions, such as inventorying the lifespan of e-waste, and should be carried out with the support of tolerable recycling legislation. The e-waste management system should be initiated and aligned with both national and international best practices [10]. A country such as Ghana has promulgated the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act (917) and Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Regulations (LI 2250; EC, 2019) in 2016. The essence of the Hazardous and Electronic Waste Control and Management Act (917) is to resolve the improper disposal of e-waste and enforce stringent regulations on the importation of EE appliances, which contribute immensely to a notable responsibility, as well as executing the concept of extended producer responsibility [10]. The informal recycling techniques, which include open burning, incineration, acid stripping of metals, and acid baths, can result in the serious production of unintended secondary products that include heavy metals, dioxins, and furans. The most appropriate e-waste management that requires recognition is to ensure that there is sustainable collection, as well as sorting, storing, transportation, and processing including espousing rules and regulations to deal with e-waste [11]. The same study revealed that the formal recycling technique involves having approved facilities that can reprocess recyclable products for instance plastic and metals. The same researcher reflected that some of the functional e-waste recycling centers are mainly found in Europe, as well as North America, Austria, Japan, Belgium, Spain, and Canada [11]. The key aspects that should be undertaken during the recycling of e-waste entail collection, pre-treatment, treatment, and disposal. E-waste is collected through initiatives such as the take-back program and the buying of e-waste from waste pickers.
Omondi et al. [4] elaborated that the use of technologies is the best solution in managing ICT waste. Moreover, legislation, policies, waste collection methods, including transportation and other related aspects, should be implemented to ensure effective execution of technical solutions. Awareness of recycling is the most suitable management technique to reduce the detrimental impact of ICT waste on the environment [12]. Improper disposal of ICT waste at landfills causes toxic leachate that infiltrates into groundwater and releases harmful gases that cause atmospheric pollution [12]. The disposal of ICT waste can be avoided by consulting experts for the best guidance on handling, restoring, and replacing damaged components of ICT equipment with functional parts from other obsolete ICT appliances [13]. The purchasing of ICT products that are environmentally friendly is integral in the reduction of ICT waste accumulation and avoiding environmental contamination [13]. In addition, inadequate knowledge and awareness of ICT waste management have the potential to cause pollution of water resources, air, and soil [13]. The management challenges of ICT waste are mostly associated with limited collection points, inadequate awareness and environmental education, nonexistence of policies and regulations, lack of interest from the government, as well as insufficient environmentally friendly solutions and technology are often encountered [14]. Mmereki et al. [15] stated that ICT waste output is significantly increasing because it dominates modern life and has a shorter product lifespan, which contributes to high production volumes, but they contain metals of economic value.
ICT waste is poorly investigated in Namibia and there is limited information on its management. In the context of Namibia’s perspective, the meaning of ICT waste forms part of the definition of e-waste that was adopted from the WEEE directive of the European Union. Ndjulume [16] defines e-waste as “all electronic and electrical equipment that has reached the end of its useful life and can no longer be used for its original intended purpose”.
Namibia is currently executing a National E-waste Management Policy to deal with the country’s ever-increasing e-waste problems [17]. Due to the absence of specific regulations on ICT waste, Namibia is applying multilateral environmental agreements such as the Basel Convention, which deals with the safeguarding of the environment and welfare of people against devastating impacts emanating from hazardous waste and other waste according to their traits and structure [16].
Anzeige
Therefore, there is a need for baseline data as an effort to address the knowledge gap on ICT waste in Windhoek. In addition, there is a lack of awareness of ICT waste hazards, ICT waste consequences, and environmental impact. Due to the unavailability of data, this study was limited to waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges. This waste fraction has a high consumption in the country and is widely used. Therefore, to fill the research gap, the present study has been prepared.
The following objectives were covered in this research paper:
1.
To suggest a framework for e-waste legislation to be adopted by the municipality of Windhoek on waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges management.
2.
To develop a proposed management model for an effective management system for waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges in Windhoek.
3.
To propose strategies for efficient and effective ICT waste management to be utilized within the municipality of Windhoek, including critical stakeholders dealing with ICT waste.
Literature review
Awareness of Information and Communication Technology waste management
The world has become a global village, and this realization has been driven by the knowledge economy, which relies immensely on electrical and electronic equipment [18]. Furthermore, there is an increase in the production of ICT products driven by a high consumption rate [18]. In a related study by Oyebode [19], it was specified that about 20–50 metric tons of e-waste are produced every year around the globe, and only 13–18 percent is recycled. As per the global e-waste monitor, in 2019 alone, 53.6 metric tons of e-waste were generated around the globe, and only 17.4 percent of e-waste was collected and recycled in an appropriate manner [20]. Tan et al. [21] opine that ICT products are increasing rapidly around the globe due to a high demand, which prompts continuous generation of ICT waste; there is a relationship between the escalation in consumption and the limited life span of ICT products. The same study asserted that the global budget for procuring ICT products, including their maintenance, increased sharply from $3.38 trillion in 2016 to $3.7 trillion in 2018 due to high consumption [21]. In a study by Vishwakarma et al. [22], it was explicitly explained that developed countries such as Germany, Belgium, and South Korea are using contemporary recycling technologies such as hydro, pyro, and bio-metallurgy to recover economically valuable products from ICT waste. Maphosa and Maphosa [18] elaborated that an effective harmonized collection and recycling policy of ICT waste has been adopted in countries such as the USA, Japan, Germany, Sweden, and Switzerland. In a similar study by Vishwakarma et al. [22], it was noted that there is a continuous increase in management challenges of ICT waste, and different sectors dealing with ICT waste management, such as manufacturers, consumers, collectors, recyclers, and policymakers, experience this problem. Vishwakarma et al. [22] emphasized that recycling and management of waste ICT is a challenge mainly in undeveloped countries such as India, Nigeria, and China due to high consumption of ICT products. In addition, recycling of ICT waste is considered as the most feasible long-term solution in managing the waste [22]. Dey et al. [23] reflected that there is a need to introduce technologies that can assist in recycling and reprocessing of ICT waste such as toners.
There are technological innovations on ICT waste recycling that can be employed as a management technique which include the use of hydrothermal and several metallurgical procedures which are considered the best recycling procedures of waste toners [20]. In addition, the International Standard Organization (ISO 11798) that deals with permanence and durability indicated that toners should be light fastening, resistant to water, heat and wear; however, this may prompt the recycling challenges. More so, the use of thermal process in the recycling of printer toners is hazardous because the latter explodes [20].
The most prominent waste management strategies that can be exploited in terms of waste management comprise reduce, reuse, and recycle [23]. Interestingly, certain manufacturers use initiatives such as redirecting waste toners into a new waste toner reservoir of xerographic machines. Other available options include remanufacturing of retrieved waste toners, which is considered as one of the feasible alternatives for management [20].
ICT waste hazards
ICT waste is hazardous to humans and the environment because it contains contaminants that can cause serious public health complications such as respiratory infections, premature deaths, and heart-related diseases [21]. A study by Okafor et al. [24] elucidated that inks used in inkjet printers constitute chemicals such as butyl urea, cyclohexanone, ethoxylated acetylenic diols, ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid, ethylene glycol, and some sulfur-containing dyes. The heavy-duty inkjet printers consist of several cartridges to enhance the reproduction of color in flex and photographs. Any reduction in one color when the cartridge is low requires the replacement of most of the cartridges, and upon disposal, contaminates the environment [20]. Furthermore, printers such as laser printers use toners that can be in a dry or wet state, with the former containing both acrylic and styrene powders that include color pigments [13]. A study by Song et al. [25] emphasized that ICT waste, such as toners, constitutes macromolecular compounds that can pollute the environment and cause serious health consequences to humans when they leak. Okafor et al. [24] added that liquid toners also comprise acrylic resins and extra dye pigments to give a sharp color photo. Song et al. [25] revealed that there are challenges in initiating management strategies for ICT waste because they are widely used.
ICT waste social consequences
Different ICT equipment, such as computers, mobile phones, and printers, is extensively used [26]. In a study in Nigeria, it was revealed that 50 million tons of ICT waste are produced monthly [19]. Okafor et al. [24] confirmed that there is increasing anxiety about the recycling and reuse of toners due to the escalating volume of toners being dumped at landfills. There are concerns regarding the quality of air and groundwater that are contaminated due to tiny particles emitted by disposed toners [20]. The environment and people living in the surrounding areas with recycling facilities are vulnerable because of the accumulation of heavy metals found in toner powder [20]. The same researcher indicated that limited awareness of the collection and transportation of ICT waste, such as toners, had been observed because they are collected with solid waste, which made monitoring and quantification a challenge, particularly in densely populated countries [20]. The same study provides evidence that toxic metals such as Cadmium are found in printer toners, including ink, and are known to cause serious damage to the kidneys and bones. The toner powder is detrimental to both humans and the environment and should not be permitted to be burned or disposed of at the landfill because they discharge dangerous gases such as dioxin when exposed to high temperature and pressure [6]. In a similar study by Maphosa and Maphosa [18], several developing countries practice rudimentary labor-intensive techniques to recover valuable metals from ICT waste, and this exercise has a detrimental repercussion on the environment because of acid leaching and combustion.
ICT waste environmental impacts
A large proportion of printers comprises hazardous chemicals that emit explosive organic solvents during printing, and they are toxic to the environment [19]. In a study conducted by Dzah et al. [10], it was revealed that if people responsible for the disposal of ICT waste do not prioritize environmental safety, there is a likelihood that toxic heavy metals in different forms may pollute the environment. In a related study by Anuardo et al. [14], it was specified that ICT waste contributes to soil pollution, the ocean, groundwater, and the diminution of natural resources due to limited waste treatment. Parthasarathy [20] explained that, on average, every single retardant cartridge can potentially discharge about six thousand tons of carbon powder into the environment. The same study resonated that the discharged carbon powder can be detrimental to the environment because it releases toxic materials such as plastics, heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and resins that may cause cancer [20]. The disposal of printer toners at the designated landfill contaminates soil and water resulting in perilous cumulative impact [27]. Dzah et al. [10] acknowledged that ICT waste constitutes toxic materials and, if inappropriately managed, may form parts of the major environmental contaminants.
Conceptual research framework and developed hypotheses
Narrative background
A framework as depicted in Fig. 1 adopted from Jayaraman et al. [13] was used in this study to demonstrate how the stakeholders are managing ICT waste. The framework shows that there is a relation between the four factors and environmental impacts. These factors are ICT waste hazards, social consequence, and ICT usage (consumption) as well as ICT disposal practices.
The conceptual framework was derived from the five research questions based on which of the outcome in relation to ICT wastes process from generation until effective or when inappropriate waste disposal is determined. The five research questions were as follows:
1.
What is the general awareness of ICT waste management and recycling in Windhoek?
2.
What ICT wastes are mostly produced and how are they disposed of?
3.
What are the reasons for disposing ICT products and disposal practices in Windhoek?
4.
Are there specific ICT waste management practices informed by policies at local authorities’ level in the jurisdiction of Windhoek?
5.
Are environmental considerations taken into account with regards to ICT waste management framework and policies in Windhoek?
Based on these, questions and insights are drawn from the literature and the following hypotheses were formulated:
H1: awareness of hazards of ICT wastes and negative impacts on the environment and human health to encourage proper disposal practices.
H2: awareness on social consequences of ICT wastes influences consumption decisions and ICT wastes generation.
H3: major organizations dealing with ICT products in Windhoek play a fundamental role in production and quality treatment of ICT wastes.
H4: disposing of ICT products and disposal practices in Windhoek are motivated by wear and tear.
H5: environmental impact motivates disposal practices at an individual level.
Research design and methodology
This section explains the methodology that had been used during the research. The section further narrates the approaches used in data collection, imperativeness of collected data, and data analysis.
The research consisted of a two-phase research design that encompasses collecting and analyzing the data into different phases: first the qualitative phase, and then the quantitative phase. The qualitative data was collected through semi-structured interview, whereas, for the purpose of quantitative data, the survey questionnaires were developed and administered. An overview of the research design and methodology is further explained.
This study optimized an exploratory sequential mixed-methods research design that factors in the qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis methods to investigate ICT waste management specifically waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges in Windhoek, Namibia [28]. The rationale for using this design was to render an inclusive understanding of the complex issues surrounding the management of waste printers, ink, and toner cartridges, which cannot be fully captured by a single methodological approach [29]. For quantitative phase, a questionnaire was developed and utilized to collect quantitative data from 60 respondents from the municipality, an e-waste recycling company (NamiGreen), and two major ICT companies (MTC and Telecom Namibia), allowing for an in-depth exploration of their experiences and perspectives [30]. The two ICT companies were selected because they are the major ICT companies in Windhoek; the municipality was considered since they are responsible for waste management, while NamiGreen deals with the recycling of ICT waste, including printers, ink, and toner cartridges. The survey was created using the methods described by Uhunamure et al. [31]. The main issues with consumer behavior and waste management strategies were identified, and questionnaires were created.
Description of the study area
Namibia is a country geographically situated in South-West Africa and is bordering South Africa on the south, Botswana on the east, Angola on the north, and the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean on the west, while Zambia and Zimbabwe also border Namibia on the north–east, respectively (as depicted in Fig. 2) The country has a total population of approximately 3,022,401 people and has a total land mass covering 824,269 km2 [32]. The official language for the country is English; however, there are more than seven local languages [32].
Fig. 2
Map of Windhoek, Namibia depicting the study sites.
Windhoek is the administrative capital of the Republic of Namibia, situated in the central highlands within the Khomas region at latitude -22.55941°S and longitude 17.08323°E. Windhoek has the highest urban population in the country, with approximately 325,900 people [33]. Windhoek, being part of the Khomas region, has 98,667 households and an average household size of 4.0 [33]. However, due to the high migration and urban development in the city over the years, this number might have drastically changed. The Khomas region has a total labor force of 70.2% [33]. Approximately 20.4% of the population in the economic age category remains unemployed [20]. The city has a total surface area of 5133 km2, comprising 26 neighborhoods (see Fig. 2). The township of Katutura is the most populous area in Windhoek. The city has widespread infrastructure with two airports, road networks, hospitals, hotels, schools, universities, colleges, and hospitals. The city is under the management of the municipality of Windhoek. The city’s expansion has been exacerbated by urban migration, which has exerted pressure on the provision of essential services, particularly waste management, including e-waste.
Field sampling and assessment
The empirical research setting of the assessment comprising ICT waste management was undertaken in Windhoek. Data collected from a survey questionnaire were distributed to 60 participants from a specified group comprises officials from the department of waste management, environmental and health division within the municipality. A similar approach was also extended to NamiGreen and two major ICT companies in Windhoek, MTC and Telecom Namibia. The survey focused on old printers, ink, and toner cartridges (PITC) (before disposal) as well as method of disposal, and was undertaken over a period of 3 months due to the convenience and availability of the participants. The participants responded positively to the administered questionnaires. The socio-demographic and economic variables were taken into consideration, and this includes gender, age, and educational level. Initiatives related to acquaintance with PITC recycling, including knowledge about the recycling program of PITC, were highlighted. Five areas of investigation were used for the survey questionnaires: dependent and independent variables. The independent variables include data on demographic and socioeconomic variables such as gender, age, marital status, level of education, and income. Paper-based distribution was then undertaken. Direct observation at the e-waste recycling facility in Windhoek was carried out during the site visits for the purpose of ground proofing and determining the management methods used by the e-waste recycling companies on waste printer, ink, and toner cartridges. This allowed the researcher to have access to additional information not covered in the questionnaires and to validate information. The photos were taken during the site visit to get a basic understanding of the existing condition of Windhoek’s e-waste management, as reflected in Fig. 3. The population size was used in the calculation of the sample size using an open-source web calculator. The following equations that were used for the sample size was according to Kotrlik and Higgins [34] where p is the proportion of respondents who choose a certain option (p = 0.50), N is the population size (60), z is the score (z = 1.96 for a 95% confidence level), and d is the confidence interval or margin of error (d = 5%). The population requires a total of 60 sample sizes [35]. Therefore, the following sample size calculation was required for this study:
Fig. 3
Disassembling of WPITC to recover valuable materials at NamiGreen recycling facility in Windhoek, Namibia: a collected waste cartridges, b dismantling of waste ICT (printers), d removed ink and toner cartridges, and d scrap metals from waste ICT (printers)
$$s= \frac{{(z score)}^{2}\times NP (1-P)}{({d)}^{2} \left(N-1\right)+ ({z score)}^{2} P (1-P)}$$
(1)
Appointments were made with the identified focal person at the Division of Solid Waste
Management and Environmental and Health Division within the Municipality of Windhoek to schedule interviews with officials involved in waste management. The same method was also carried for the recycling company, NamiGreen and two major ICT companies in Windhoek, MTC and Telecom Namibia to interview officials dealing with ICT waste. The questionnaires were distributed in both paper forms and e-mails. The paper forms were administered on a face-to-face basis, preferably at the convenience of the participants. The e-mail survey questionnaires were sent to the identified focal person at the companies and distributed to the officials.
Descriptive statistics
Quantitative primary data from the survey comprised numerical measurements and inferential/statistical analysis of the gathered data. Its purpose was to thoroughly describe and explain specific situations, thereby enabling researchers to generalize findings and predict future phenomena effectively [36]. The statistics provided by an inferential analysis enable researchers to extend study findings from the observed sample to the broader population under investigation [37].
Descriptive statistics were used to calculate the standard deviation of each parameter of the captured socio-demographics data collected from the respondents, and the results obtained were represented in tables, charts, and figures. Central tendency measures such as mean and standard deviation were analyzed by means of group statistics using a t test to determine the significant difference in average number of employees managed by individuals in a parastatal and those employed in private. Levene’s test for equality of variances was analyzed to determine the independent sample test. An independent sample test was analyzed using Cohen’s d, Hedges’ g, and Glass’s delta to provide estimate of the effect size.
Statistical and multivariate analysis
The factor analysis was employed to explain the overall quality of the ICT waste management process in Windhoek. Nine components with eigenvalues greater than one were extracted from the selected 23 variables. The variables were analyzed and presented in a rotated component matrix showing the component and loading path coefficients.
A t test was used to determine if there is a significant difference between the means of the two groups and how they are related. The t test was, therefore, employed to determine the significance between management and relationship on the management practices of ICT waste, as well as on awareness, consumption, and disposal.
Partial least squares structural
Equation modeling
A partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was considered for this analysis due to its flexibility, which makes it appropriate in the event where non-parametric measurements are used, which is the case with this survey data [38]. The Smart PLS software was used as an analytical tool for the purpose of this study. The classical linear regression analysis was not considered for this analysis because it requires a wide range of conditions and assumptions, including normality of the dependent variable and homoscedasticity, which could not be satisfied with this multidimensional panel data from this survey. Technically, the PLS-SEM analyses complex relationships between variables, often within models that involve multiple dependent and independent variables. Unlike classical linear regression that postulates a linear relationship between the dependent and explanatory variables, structural equation modeling (SEM), on the other hand, focuses on maximizing the explained variance of the dependent variables rather than on fitting the model to the data, which is the case with covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM). The Smart PLS software was basically the analytical tool that was used for the modeling.
Dependent variable
The dependent variable that was chosen is the overall quality of the ICT waste management process in Windhoek, as informed by the existing body of work in the literature [13].
Independent variables
The independent variables were chosen as per the guidelines of both the existing literature and the results obtained using factor analysis. Of the 23 variables used for factor analysis, nine components were extracted, among which were variables with the largest factor loadings in each of five hypothesized categories, namely hazard awareness, ICT consumption, disposal practices, social consequences, and environmental impacts. These categories could be used as representatives of the components as well as the candidate’s independent variables.
Factor analysis was also employed in this study. This is a type of multivariate method that is recognized as part of principal component analysis. This analysis is integral in explaining the relationship among a set of observable variables with a limited number of unobservable variables referred to as factors. Factor analysis was employed to analyze the relationship of the extracted components from the variables. As a dimension reduction technique, factor analysis is particularly practical when a study involves several variables (in this case, the 23 variables) and structural modeling needs to be performed. The question of which variables to include or not include in a prospective model comes naturally. Factor analysis helps to narrow down the extensive group of variables to the first components, then to individual variables, that carry the most information in the initial sample. Components are linear combinations of original variables, and as such they cannot be included in a structural model, regardless of the analytical method. Once factor analysis is performed and the initial set of original variables is reduced to extracted components, original variables with the highest loading coefficient on each component can be used in structural modeling, to proxy each extracted component.
Findings and data analysis results from the study
A transcript of qualitative data from 60 respondents that had been obtained through semi-structured questionnaires was collected from the municipality, an e-waste recycling company, and two major ICT companies (MTC and Telecom Namibia). The data were analyzed using descriptive analysis and statistical analysis.
Descriptive analysis
The respondents were dominated by females, with fifty-three percent, while forty-seven percent of the respondents were male. Most of the respondents fall under the age category of 40–49, with forty-seven percent, followed by the age group between 30–39, with forty percent, while eight percent were under the age category of 25–29. Only five percent were in the age category of 50–59 as represented in Fig. 4. About half of the respondents have postgraduate qualifications, twenty three percent were bachelor’s degree holders followed by fifteen percent with master’s degrees, nine percent have completed both primary and secondary schooling, three percent with national diplomas, only two percent with doctorate qualification as depicted in Fig. 5.
Fig. 4
Gender identities and age categories for the respondents
The factor analysis was conducted as a dimension on how to reduce the number of components, and for the purpose of this study, it was reduced to five to achieve the intended intention. The factor analysis establishes which component has the highest coefficient loading from the original variable.
Factor analysis
The factor analysis results show that nine components with eigenvalues that are above one were extracted using the principal component analysis from the 23 variables as shown in Table 1. The nine candidates’ variables that could represent the extracted components are: disposal of ICT equipment’s (waste printer, ink, and toner cartilage) when malfunctioning with a loading coefficient of 0.874 (on component 1), ‘how do you transport ICT waste to the recycling facility’ with a loading coefficient 0.787 (on component 2), ‘the current ICT waste management in Windhoek is satisfactory’ with a coefficient of 0.751 (on component 3), ‘ICT waste (printer, ink, and toner cartridges) are associated with adverse impact towards the environment’ with a coefficient of 0.827 (on component 4). Overall, ‘how do you rate the quality of waste ICT management process in Windhoek’ with a loading coefficient of 0.737 (on component 5). At this stage, the later variable is the dependent variable; therefore, it will not be considered as a possible independent variable. Importance of information access on ICT waste in sensitization of residents (loads on component 6) with a loading coefficient of 0.485. ‘The Municipality of Windhoek has an e-waste recycling facility’ has loading coefficient of 0.455 (on component 7). ‘Inadequate e-waste recycling facility in Windhoek’ has a loading coefficient of − 0.563 (on component 8) and ‘generally, recycling is an imperative waste management tool’ with loading coefficient of − 0.424 (on component 9). As represented in the rotated component matrix for the remaining loading coefficients, the selected components are good risk factors for the regression model in an attempt to explain the overall quality of the ICT waste management process in Windhoek.
Table 1
The components with eigenvalues above one extracted from the 23 variables
Variables
Components
Communalities
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Importance of information access
0.414
0.247
− 0.100
− 0.207
− 0.329
0.485
0.050
− 0.229
0.264
0.754
Limited awareness programs on recycling
0.480
0.151
0.058
0.032
0.349
− 0.127
− 0.337
− 0.158
0.352
0.657
Perceptions of the general public on ICT waste
− 0.412
0.210
0.399
0.267
0.236
0.338
0.054
0.090
0.328
0.732
Inadequate e-waste recycling facility in Windhoek
0.227
− 0.204
− 0.265
− 0.287
0.105
− 0.354
0.412
− 0.563
− 0.015
0.869
Transporting ICT waste to the recycling facility
0.053
0.787
− 0.016
− 0.003
− 0.303
0.275
− 0.108
− 0.087
− 0.001
0.808
Most of the people tend to dispose of their ICT equipment (waste printer, ink, and toner cartilage) when they are malfunctioning
0.874
0.133
0.026
− 0.069
0.128
− 0.259
− 0.031
0.060
0.079
0.881
In general, recycling facility that handle waste which includes ICT waste are licensed
0.386
− 0.773
0.124
0.122
− 0.248
0.342
− 0.019
− 0.024
0.057
0.960
Disposal of ICT equipment (waste printer, ink, and toner cartilage) when malfunctioning
0.874
0.133
0.026
− 0.069
0.128
− 0.259
− 0.031
0.060
0.079
0.881
Recycling facility for waste including ICT waste are licensed
0.386
− 0.773
0.124
0.122
− 0.248
0.342
− 0.019
− 0.024
0.057
0.960
Eigenvalues
4.056
2.996
2.66
2.13
1.744
1.604
1.362
1.134
1.04
% variance
17.637
0.028
11.56
9.28
7.584
0.968
0.916
4.932
4.52
% of cumulative
17.637
30.66
42.23
51.52
59.09
66.06
71.98
76.91
81.43
a15–30% respondents of 100,000 questionnaires, an average of 22.5% of 100,000
Proposed framework model
The framework output from the analysis reveals a poor awareness of ICT waste hazard and this explains why attitudes towards disposal practices are more informed by perceived secondary pecuniary value. The economic gain appears to be a considerably stronger determinant of how ICT waste is disposed. Under the conjugate effects of reduced awareness and financial incentives, disposal practices are only marginally influenced by the management process and the availability of adequate infrastructure, even where there is an acknowledgement of health hazards and potential social consequences. Consumption of ICT products does not factor in the post-usage considerations; it is merely based on affordability. As illustrated in Fig. 1, the ICT waste management conceptual framework proposed for Windhoek leveraged the findings and largely addresses all the challenges. The conceptual framework, as represented in Fig. 1, comprises factors related to the production of ICT waste and impacts, as well as disposal and management. The conceptual framework covers the questions that influence the production chain and the ICT product lifespan. The factors that form parts of the conceptual framework, such as awareness and social consequences, are severely influenced by attitudes and behaviors towards the handling of ICT waste. Therefore, cognizance of social consequences will allow the consumers to comprehend how they utilize ICT products as well as influence of the consumption rate of products that lead to the generation of waste, and ultimately their disposal.
The reduced model
Five variables were selected as independent variables, among the candidate representatives: ‘Importance of information access on ICT waste in sensitization of residents’ addressing hypothesis 1 (H1), ‘Generally recycling is an imperative waste management tool’ addressing hypothesis 2 (H2), ‘Municipality of Windhoek has an e-waste recycling facility’ addressing hypothesis 3 (H3), ‘Disposal of ICT equipment (waste printer, ink, and toner cartilage) when malfunctioning’ addressing hypothesis 4 (H4), and finally ‘ICT waste (printer, ink, and toner cartridges) are associated with adverse impact on the environment’ addressing hypothesis 5, (H5). The reduced model is presented in Fig. 6 with an R2 of 4% (0.04) reflecting the variations of the dependent variable that can be explained by the independent variables.
The path coefficient is 0.200 and asserts a positive relation although not strong, between the independent variables and the dependent variable. The reduced model suggests the latent construct alpha, made of the five independent variables such as importance of awareness, recycling as an imperative tool of the waste management process, the Windhoek municipality having an e-waste recycling facility, malfunction as the reason of disposal, and ICT waste being associated with adverse impacts on the environment, has a positive influence on the overall quality of the ICT waste management. The R2 indicates that 4% of variations in the overall quality of the waste management process can be attributed to the variations in the latent variables. Although this portrays weak predictive power, smaller R2 values for PLS-SEM in some fields of business, social sciences, and marketing research are, however, valid and acceptable and can still demonstrate strong predictive relevance [39].
The extended model
As depicted in Fig. 7 for the extended model, 19 variables suggested by factor analysis were used as independent variables. They were grouped in four latent constructs, proxying awareness, consumption, disposal, and management, to address each of the five research hypotheses. Among the candidate-proxies variables, the management construct has the highest path coefficient of 0.516, disposal has a path coefficient of 0.270, while awareness has 0.154 and the construct with the lowest path coefficient is consumption. The model showed a substantially good R2 value of 41.9% (Fig. 7) indicating that 41.9% of the variations in the dependent variable can be explained by variations in the independent variables forming our latent constructs.
For the third model, the R2 (Fig. 8) implies that it accounts well for variations in the quality of the ICT waste management process. The value of 41.8% is in the higher range when comparing to values reported in the peer-reviewed literature. The path coefficient of each independent variable characterizes the strength of the relation of the specific variable to the dependent variable. Although there is a positive path coefficient, aspects of awareness still need to be increased. The path coefficient indicates a positive relationship between latent independent variables and dependent variable. This means that the quality of ICT waste management is positively related to awareness, consumption, disposal practices as represented by selected proxy variables.
Table 2 gives a summary of the path loading coefficient of the five components in relation to management. Management has the stronger path coefficient of 51.6% reflecting a stronger relationship with the overall quality of the ICT waste management process as shown in Table 2 suggesting that the five hypotheses are supported but with some weak coefficients. Disposal has a path loading coefficient of 27%, while awareness has path loading coefficient of 15% and consumption has the least path loading coefficient of 15.4%. A comparative PLS-SEM R2 values with studies in the literature has been presented in Table 3 to provide more inclusive results.
Table 2
Summary of path coefficient
Components
Path coefficients
AW—> M10
0.154
C—> M10
0.029
D—> M10
0.270
M—> M10
0.516
Table 3
Comparative PLS-SEM R2 values with studies in the literature
The three models, which are the reduced model, the extended model, and the overall structural model, have some similarities. They all assert the existence of a positive relationship between the latent construct and the independent variables. The choice of the indicator variables that form the constructs of the models was informed by factor analysis, to reduce the dimension of the initial data while preserving most of the information they carry. In all three models, the construct variables were selected as proxies with the largest loading coefficients on components extracted by factor analysis, a standard practice to ensure the modeling exercise can happen without losing most of the information, while avoiding the trap of information redundancy or multicollinearity. The extended and overall model yielded a good R2 value situated in the upper range when compared to occurrences in the peer-reviewed literature.
T test analysis
Table 4 below shows that management has a significant positive relationship on the management practices of ICT waste with a standard beta of 0.557, t value = 1.326, and P value = 0.093 which is less than one and is supported. Disposal has a significant influence on management with a standard beta of 0.173, t-value = 1.124, and P value = 0.131 which is greater than one and is not supported. Awareness has positive and significant effect on management of ICT waste with a standard beta of 0.141, t-value = 1.057, and P value is 0.145, which is greater than one and not supported. Interesting consumption has significant effect and the lowest path coefficient with standard beta of 0.014, t-value is 0.105, and P value = 0.458 which is greater than one and not supported.
Table 4
Summary of the path coefficients and hypothesis testing for direct effect
Hypothesis
Paths
Std. Beta
Std dev
t-value
P values
Supported
H1
AW—> M10
0.149
0.141
1.057
0.145 > 0.1
No
H2
C—> M10
0.014
0.133
0.105
0.458 > 0.1
No
H3
D—> M10
0.173
0.154
1.124
0.131 > 0.1
No
H5
D4—> M10
0.122
0.165
0.743
0.229 > 0.1
No
H4
M—> M10
0.557
0.420
1.326
0.093 < 0.1
Yes
10% significance level; not supported at 5%
Although it is a standard practice in the literature, it may be noted that t tests might not always be appropriate. It assesses the equality of means between the groups based on the assumptions of the normality of data sample, independence of in-sample observations, and scale measurement. All these three conditions are more often not satisfied with panel data like these with cross-sectional dimensions and multiple scale.
Discussion
Based on the findings from the survey with selected participants in the municipality as well as a local recycling company and two major ICT companies, the following discussion pertaining to ICT waste management can be deliberated.
Factor analysis shows that nine selected components have a positive relationship, and disposal of ICT products has the highest loading coefficient. Maphosa et al. [41] emphasized that to manage e-waste that includes ICT waste, it is always important to have a better comprehension of any issues associated with effective management of e-waste. Therefore, understanding the real motives behind the disposal of ICT products will be imperative in addressing their management and monitoring. In a study carried out in Nigeria, the management of e-waste, which includes ICT waste, is influenced by numerous factors such as waste toxicity, applicable recycling technologies, and available regulations [4]. The disposal of ICT waste is a serious management concern because there are limited recycling infrastructures. The issue of resource availability to manage ICT waste may also contribute to a strong relationship between management and disposal. Omondi et al. [4] emphasized that the management of e-waste that incorporates ICT waste needs technical inputs, although legal frameworks, collection, transportation, and some critical service provisions are also necessary.
From the suggested models in the study, the reduced model indicated that to a lower extent, we can account for the variation in the dependent variables by looking at those happening in the independent variables. This is seen in the lower R2 value, while the positive relation represented by the path coefficient remains. The larger portion of the variability of the overall quality of the waste management process in Windhoek could not be captured in the reduced model R2. In a study conducted in Nigeria, it was suggested that e-waste, which comprises ICT waste, requires a special management method because it contains valuable metals as well as hazardous materials that can pollute the environment [7]. The same researcher emphasized that although e-waste that includes ICT waste has some valuable metals, there is a need to ensure that their disposal and management are effectively implemented [7].
The extended model demonstrated gave a better account of the variability in the ICT waste management process. The management construct has the highest path coefficient, followed by disposal, then awareness and consumption have the lowest path coefficient. Alani et al. [7] revealed that appropriate management of e-waste that covers ICT waste is commercially imperative because it will allow the reuse of valuable metals recovered from this waste stream and reduce the extraction of raw material through mining that is causing severe destruction of the environment. The same research explained that inappropriate management of e-waste which includes ICT waste has a detrimental impact on human health and environment [7]. In a study by Omondi et al. [4], it was echoed that awareness is imperative in enhancing effective management of waste. Although awareness does not have a high path loading coefficient in the analysis, it remains an integral component in ensuring the effectiveness of ICT waste management. The quality of ICT waste management is positively related to awareness, consumption, disposal practices as illustrated by the positive path coefficients.
The planned ICT waste management framework encompasses the key component such as ICT waste hazard awareness, ICT usage (consumption), ICT disposal practice, social consequences and environmental impact assessment. The key factors are essential in the management of ICT waste to reduce the impacts on the environment. Long et al. [42] advised that the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment that include ICT waste can differ from countries to countries. A management method that best suits one country will not be appropriate in another country [42]. The same study further explained that there are certain similarities that can be related as the best practices; however, the effective management method should be explicit to the specific country conditions [42]. The ICT waste management method for Windhoek is explicitly designed to best suit the Namibia conditions.
Management has a significant positive relationship on the management practices of ICT waste. Disposal has a significant influence on management, while awareness has positive and significant effect on management of ICT waste. Although consumption has significant effect on management of ICT waste, it has the lowest path coefficient.
Novelty of the research study
Based on the analysis results as reflected by responses from the participants, a proposed ICT waste management model for Windhoek that can be used as a baseline for other municipalities in Namibia was developed. Informed by the statistical analysis, the proposed ICT waste management model was built from the theory of moral reasoning of Kohlberg [43] and theory of cognition by Piaget [44]. The ICT management model presented in this study (Fig. 9) reflected how behavioral change contribute to the management flow of ICT waste; for instance, as soon as awareness and knowledge of participants on the disposal practices of ICT waste is attained, there will be a significant change. The model acknowledged that the role of the society has an influencethe reduction of ICT waste contamination and the preservation of the environment.
Proposed ICT waste management framework for Windhoek, Namibia
The unique climate, demographics, and socioeconomic characteristics and its condition for Windhoek resulted in the formulation of the proposed ICT waste management framework. The proposed framework comprises the key component such as ICT waste hazard awareness, ICT usage (consumption), ICT disposal practice, social consequences, and environmental impact assessment. The management of ICT waste must be addressed with those key factors to reduce the impact on the environment.
ICT waste hazard awareness
Windhoek has under 500,000 inhabitants and is relatively small, but rapid urbanization and increasing digital adoption make ICT waste an emerging problem. An approach to respond to the challenge will be through:
Community-based campaigns: leverage local radio, social media, and community leaders to spread awareness about the hazards of ICT waste (toxic metals, plastics) and safe disposal methods.
Schools and institutions: partner with schools to educate students on e-waste risks, since young people are significant users of ICT devices.
ICT usage/consumption behavior
Windhoek’s population highly relies on imported electronics, and many people use second-hand devices due to economic constraints. Promoting second-hand markets will encourage the reuse of functional devices by facilitating repairs and the resale of electronics. This practice is already prevalent but should be formalized and better regulated to ensure safety and efficiency. Incentives for energy efficiency must be created by promoting solar-powered and energy-efficient ICT devices, taking advantage of Windhoek’s 300 sunny days a year. Solar chargers and solar-powered devices can reduce energy consumption and prolong device lifespan.
ICT waste disposal practices
Limited formal e-waste recycling infrastructure exists in Windhoek. Informal disposal is common, leading to environmental and health hazards, particularly in low-income areas. More e-waste collection centers must be set up, with drop-off points across the city where people can bring old electronics. Engagement with the municipality and private sector in financing and managing these facilities should be considered. Incentivizing recycling will encourage proper disposal practices; therefore, this will provide monetary or non-monetary rewards for responsible disposal. This can take the form of partnership with manufacturers and retailers to offer discounts on new purchases for recycling old devices.
Social consequences
Informal e-waste recycling in Namibia often occurs in precarious conditions, with workers facing health risks due to inadequate protective gear and exposure to hazardous materials. There is a need to formalize e-waste processing jobs, by collaborating with local businesses and NGOs to provide safe working conditions for individuals in the recycling sector and training in safe e-waste handling, dismantling, and material recovery. Public health awareness will be raised by highlighting the dangers of informal e-waste disposal to both workers and residents living near unregulated dumps.
Environmental impact assessment
Windhoek’s hot semi-arid climate and limited water resources mean that pollution from improperly disposed electronics can have severe environmental impacts, particularly affecting soil and groundwater. There is a need to conduct periodic environmental assessments, implement city-wide monitoring of soil and water quality near informal dumping sites. This will help assess the extent of contamination from e-waste and inform future urban planning decisions. Solar-powered monitoring systems can be implemented to utilize solar energy to power environmental monitoring tools (such as sensors) that track pollution in vulnerable areas [45].
Conclusion and recommendations
The ICT waste hazard awareness in Windhoek can be conducted to create awareness through campaign programs through the local media and schools to educate the populace on the dangers of improper ICT waste disposal, especially targeting informal settlements and lower-income areas. ICT usage (consumption behavior): the culture of using second-hand electronics should be supported by encouraging repairs and upgrades rather than new purchases. In addition, promoting solar-powered ICT devices aligns with Windhoek’s sunny climate, reducing the carbon footprint. Regarding ICT disposal practices, the establishment of proper e-waste collection and recycling centers would be crucial because there is lack of formal infrastructure. Incentives and partnerships with businesses could help increase participation in these programs. In terms of social consequences, there is a need to formalize the e-waste processing sector which would reduce health risks while providing better employment conditions. Public health campaigns can further minimize the dangers of informal dumping. Environmental impact assessment in Windhoek must be considered due to its arid climate, ensuring that pollution from e-waste does not affect the already scarce water resources. Solar energy could be integrated into environmental monitoring efforts. By contextualizing this framework for Windhoek, it adapts to the city’s specific environmental, social, and economic conditions, helping create a sustainable ICT waste management system to prevent health risk and protect the environment.
This study was conducted on the premises of the moral development theory of Kohlberg that posits that awareness on ICT waste positively influences attitudes towards creation and disposal of ICT waste. A major finding of this investigation was that in the case of Windhoek, the trade-off between awareness eco-friendly and sustainable attitude towards ICT waste and economic incentives is a pivotal determinant of conviction, on which a successful waste management framework should be built. The waste cycle from production to removal is only marginally dictated by awareness but is more dependent of economic utility of the ICT products consumption and ICT waste production and management at the other end of the cycle. While acknowledging direct health risk hazards that comes with poor ICT waste management and practices, or social consequences corollary to detrimental impact of ICT waste to the environment and ecosystem, respondent stakeholders still based the choice of attitude towards ICT waste on the potential of economic utility. Due to failure of awareness, there is need to address the issue with a targeted custom design and original approach. The study boasts not only a 100% literacy rate of respondents, but 97% with a level of education beyond primary school, 88% with a college or university qualification, and 75% beyond with an education level beyond the first university qualification, 50% postgraduate and 15% master’s degree holders. This highlights that the issue cannot be a mere lack of understanding but might rather stem from deeply rooted causes that will need to be investigated broadly in societal, cultural socioeconomic stimuli. Based on the findings, from the analyses, a framework for ICT waste management in Windhoek was proposed. It capitalizes on the holistic insights derived from the study to give ICT wastes an optimal flow and management process given the current state of the art in Windhoek.
The comprehensive statistical analysis approach used factor analysis to properly reduce the dimension of the original data set and select the variables to include in the models based on sound theoretical results and practice. The simple model indicated the least R2 value of 4% of variations in the general quality of the ICT waste management. However, both the extended and the overall structural model achieve a remarkable R2 value of 41.9% judging by the standards of PLS-SEM. All three models exhibit positive path coefficient to the dependent variable. Although the overall structural model accounted for all five research hypothesis and still yielded a good R2 values. Despite the rejections of four of the five t tests that are explained by the difficulty to satisfy the validity conditions of the t test, the overall model appears to be the best of all three models. Consequently, the overall model is the best fit in the management of ICT waste in Windhoek.
The municipality and stakeholders that are involved in ICT waste management should adopt a circular economy concept together with the developed management models as an approach to manage ICT waste. It is important to consider some of the key management tools such as realizing, restoring, reaching, reusing, and regeneration to address the issue of ICT waste management. Recycling of ICT waste is critical and should be given adequate attention because it reduces the potential impacts on the environment, and upgrade of skills and technologies is significant in attaining the desired outcomes. There is a need to employ environmentally friendly processes such as bioremediation together with the developed models. The removal of economic valuable metals can be reclaimed using bioleaching which uses microorganism for metabolic compounds.
The recycling facilities should be licensed, and specific guidelines should be developed to avoid risks including occupational health and safety. Stringent disposal regulation and strengthening the existing legal framework is crucial in ensuring a successful ICT waste management. Increasing awareness campaigns will play a pivotal role in the management and appropriate disposal of ICT waste.
The collection of ICT waste should be centralized to facilitate the collection and transportation of ICT waste to the recycling facility. The municipality and stakeholders dealing with ICT waste should implement resource mobilization program to ensure that recycling infrastructures are established as well maintained.
The models that have been built for the purpose of this analysis deliver valuable insights into the dynamics of structuring the management of ICT wastes in Windhoek. Nevertheless, a core recommendation would be to increase the sample size of this study to make it more representative of simple households and ordinary segments of the society that do not necessarily belong to corporate or institutionalized stakeholders.
The government should establish explicit policies, laws, and regulation that incentivize the development of initiative focusing on environmental awareness and ICT waste reduction. The organization should encourage the implementation of internal collaboration across the sector and initiate external partnership to ensure effective management of ICT waste.
There is a need for continuous harnessing and improving existing ICT waste management technology and techniques. Transformative technologies in the management of ICT waste information are necessary to increase performance of the circular economy. This will further strengthen the storage of large quantity of data and processing at high speed to allow the utilization of appropriate computational performance to statistically analyze intricate data and effectively advise policy makers. A cost–benefit analysis on the recycling of ICT waste specifically printers, ink, and toner cartridges is suggested to establish the economic viability of recycling this type of waste and associated benefit as well as profitability.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the National Botanical Research Institute within the Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (MEFT) for providing us with an opportunity to complete this study. We also thank Dr Pamela Makati from the Center of Graduate Support, University of the Free State, for English editing of the work. Special thanks to the University of the Free State for supplying the software programs used in the manuscript.
Declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
This study and its methodology were reviewed and approved by the University of the Free State Ethics Committee (UFS-HSD2024/0050). The authors listed in the manuscripts have granted their agreement to be listed as co-authors, have reviewed and approved the work, and have given their approval for submission and publishing.
Consent to participate
Written informed consent was obtained by all individual participants included in the study.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.