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Dieses Kapitel untersucht das transformative Potenzial automatisierter Mobilitätsbedarfe (AMOD), insbesondere in weniger dicht besiedelten und ländlichen Gebieten, wo es häufig an öffentlichen Verkehrsmitteln mangelt. Es untersucht das Konzept von Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) und wie AMOD in bestehende Transportsysteme integriert werden kann, um flexiblere, bequemere und nachhaltigere Mobilitätslösungen anzubieten. Der Text hebt das Yélo-DETA-Projekt in La Rochelle, Frankreich, als wegweisendes Beispiel für die Einführung von AMOD hervor. Dieses Projekt zielt darauf ab, die Verbindungen zwischen den Vorstädten zu verbessern, Lösungen auf der ersten und letzten Meile anzubieten und die wirtschaftliche, soziale und ökologische Tragfähigkeit von AMOD-Diensten aufzuzeigen. In diesem Kapitel werden auch die einzigartigen Vorteile von AMOD diskutiert, wie verbesserte Verkehrssicherheit, höhere Durchsätze und niedrigere Betriebskosten. Abschließend wird betont, wie wichtig es ist, AMOD mit traditionellen Transportmitteln zu integrieren, um ein effizienteres und nachhaltigeres urbanes Mobilitätsökosystem zu schaffen.
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Abstract
The development of Cooperative, Connected and Automated Mobility (CCAM) represents major challenges for local authorities, particularly in less dense and rural areas where there is a lack of public transportation. The main purpose of this paper is to describe the development of an automated mobility on-demand service, which will be implemented beginning September 2023 in La Rochelle, France. This paper describes the automated mobility on-demand system (bus, infrastructure and supervision centre) and the conditions for its smooth integration with the local existing MaaS (Mobility as a Service) system. This new service aims at providing a small/medium sized city like La Rochelle with an efficient last-mile transport service - to and from existing mobility hubs - complementing the existing public transport.
1 Introduction
Urban mobility focuses on big economic, environmental and social challenges related to urbanization, densification and car-dominated mobility. Local authorities implement different transport policies in order to increase the attractiveness of the public transport which is considered as a sustainable mode of transport. However, public transport has difficulties in answering first- and last-mile connectivity problems [1] and substitutes for private cars being more comfortable, convenient, and flexible, especially for combining multiple activities within a journey [2]. Recent advances in technology and engineering in the Cooperative, Connected and Automated Mobility (CCAM), have led to increasing expectation and anticipation of new and innovative modes, such as Mobility-on-Demand (MOD) and Automated-Mobility-on-Demand (AMOD) services, as potential sustainable urban mobility solutions, even more so in less dense and rural areas where there is a lack of public transportation. This paper is structured as follows: definition of MOD and AMOD systems in the context of MaaS, and a description of the implementation of AMOD in La Rochelle, France.
2 Literature Review
2.1 Automated Mobility on Demand (AMOD)
AMOS is a combination between automation (technology aspects) and sharing (behaviour aspects). The concept of MOD is based on the principle that transportation is a commodity where modes have economic values that are distinguishable in terms of cost, journey time, wait time, number of connections, convenience, and other attributes [3]. New technologies and the continuous use of smartphones have opened the possibilities for more convenient, affordable, fast and safe options in urban transportation. This has led to the emergence of MOD systems, such as Uber and Lyft, which aim to provide fast and reliable mobility that is catered to individualistic needs [4].
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MOD ensures more flexibility with respect to two-way rental systems, and provide personal, anytime mobility, in contrast to traditional taxi systems or alternative one-way ridesharing concepts such as carpooling, vanpooling, and buses. MOD is suggested as a solution to improve mobility in low-density and suburban areas [5] with 5 conditions of good integration with the public transit existing services: fare payment integration, physical infrastructure, schedule integration, data sharing, and app-integration. Autonomous driving holds great promise for MOD systems because robotic vehicles can rebalance themselves, autonomously reach charging stations when needed, and enable system-wide coordination aimed at throughput optimization. Furthermore, they provide a personal mobility option to those who do not drive, and potentially increase safety [6]. Finally, compared to MOD, AMOD services have certain unique advantages including its potential in improving road safety, higher throughputs, and lower operating costs [2] with the significant impact on individual accessibility and residential relocation patterns [7].
2.2 Mobility as a Service (MaaS)
The concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) has become an important area of study when it comes to addressing transportation issues to improve people's mobility. It is defined as: “a framework for providing a portfolio of multimodal mobility services that places the user at the centre” [8]. It involves, among other things, developing new models that integrate digital solutions to enhance traveller service while promoting sustainable transportation systems. The MaaS framework can encompass any combination of multi-service, multimodal offerings, and non-transport-related services, including private car usage and parking, whether subsidised or not by the public sector. Furthermore, it's important to emphasise that MaaS is not merely the integration of digital technology into transportation but rather the creation of a new model that incorporates existing systems with the customer at the core of services.
It is imperative to design a model for MaaS that considers the existing system (public service, for example) and models as well as user comfort. This issue echoes the work of [8, 9] in which they identify a number of challenges ranging from the overall underestimation of problems related to establishing effective collaboration and trust among the various stakeholders involved in MaaS, to the difficulties in developing attractive service offerings for customers, and even to the recognition of the need for public intervention and support for sustainable MaaS solutions, for example, from governments.
On another hand, developing new services such as those based on Autonomous vehicles (AVs) raises the question of the integration of these services. We could go further and question the overhaul of the existing model to rethink it differently. To deal with the integration question, [9] propose a classification of MaaS integration that considers both increasing [10] and decreasing [11] levels of integration. [12] explains that the development of automated vehicles technology takes place along two dimensions: (i) the driving automation dimension; (ii) the connectivity dimension. Thus, the framework proposed by [9] can help to effectively address the integration of autonomous vehicles into the existing MaaS (Fig. 1).
This integration will make possible the sharing of AVs, encouraged by factors including 24-h availability, wide vehicle choice, no driving licence required, high safety, service personalization, on-demand instant response, and a non-car oriented community. This outcome depicts conditions in which AV’s could enable the MaaS concept of shared, on-demand mobility [13].
3 Automated Mobility-On-Demand Service in Less Dense Area
3.1 The Context of La Rochelle Urban Community
On the French Atlantic coast, La Rochelle Urban Community comprises 28 municipalities around the city centre with a total population of 175 608 inhabitants (2021). The city has launched several novel initiatives—notably a goods delivery service by electric vehicle, an electric car-sharing system and even solar electric shuttle boats to transport passengers across the city harbour, which have been converted from experiments to permanent services.
La Rochelle’s first short term showcase using automated transport in the city centre began in 2008 in the CityMobil project and had a strong impact on inhabitants and decision-makers. A further demonstration of fully automated vehicles in real-life conditions was organised in 2011, including cybercars circulating for the first time in an urban open environment with interactions with pedestrians and cyclists.
Questionnaire responses showed that inhabitants believed in the development of such vehicles for public transport purposes in the future. After this successful experiment, La Rochelle participated in the CityMobil2 project as a demonstration site in 2014–2015 [14]. A main conclusion of this experiment was to encourage legislative changes to allow for permanent automated transport systems, rather than short term demonstrations.
La Rochelle’s current public transportation system includes the following services: buses (including four bus rapid transit lines), shared bicycles, shared cars, ferry boats, commuter trains, ride sharing, park and ride, and on demand shuttle service (MOD). A total of three MOD lines each serve a specific zone, with a limited time window and currently have low ridership (less than 7 trips per day).
3.2 Yélo DETA Project
La Rochelle’s latest innovative project in the field of autonomous public transport builds on the lessons learned in the past, with the objective of creating a fully MaaS-integrated, on-demand, autonomous service in suburban La Rochelle. Yélo DETA (Yélo Se Déplacer En Transport Automatisé) is a three-year project supported under the Call for Projects “Automated road mobility, connected and low-carbon service infrastructures” from the French Ministries of Industry and Digital Transition and Telecommunications. The focus is on suburban areas which currently have major gaps in terms of service capabilities: infrequent service, limited/absent off-peak service, limited connections to existing hubs, lack of suburb-to-suburb links. Indeed, the MOD service being developed during the YéloDETA project improves the existing MOD service overall (Table 1).
Table 1.
Comparing existing and new MOD service in suburban La Rochelle, France.
Current MOD
YeloDETA
Driver
Yes
No
Origin/Destination restrictions
One of three hub stations
None
Availability [H/week]
16 to 32
78
Reservation restrictions
At least 2 h before trip
None
MaaS integration
No
Yes
Objective
Bring suburban passengers to hub stations to get to city centre.
Bring suburban passengers to hub stations to get to La Rochelle city centre. Allow for inter-suburban trips using any available bus stop.
The objective of the Yélo DETA project is to develop and provide a first real-time Automated-On-Demand Transport service to respond to different challenges:
(i) to improve connections between the suburban towns, (ii) to offer a service for first and last kilometres to and from already existing hubs, (iii) to offer a complete transport solution integrated in local MaaS in order to accelerate modal transfer, (iv) to demonstrate economic, social and environmental viability of this service.
The differences between the Yélo DETA project and the past experiments are illustrated in Table 2. The main novelty of the Yélo DETA project is to go beyond a short experiment and implement of a real service, integrated with the local MaaS.
Table 2.
Characteristics of 4 experiments with AVs carried out in La Rochelle, France
Demonstration
CityMobil
CityMobil 2
YeloDETA
Year
2008
2011
2015
2023
Duration
1 month
3 months
6 months
2 years test phase
Vehicles [qty]
1
1
6
4
Vehicle capacity
2
4
12
10
Vehicle max speed [km/h]
3
5
20
60
Road type
Closed
Open, city centre
Open, city centre
Open, low density suburban town centres, and highways
Other road users
None
Cyclists, pedestrians
Cyclists, pedestrians,
cars
Cyclists,
pedestrians,
cars
On board operator
Yes
Yes
Yes
Phase 1: Yes
Phase 2: No
MaaS Integration
No
No
No
Yes
On demand service
No
No
No
Yes
Objectives
Showcase new technology in a public square
Test AVs in an open urban environment.
Idem CityMobil, including interactions with cars. Evaluate the acceptance of the technology by all stakeholders.
Idem CityMobil 2, open suburban environment at speeds up to 60 km/h, without an on board operator.
Provide on demand service to be integrated with the MaaS Estimate the modal shift to new services.
4 Conclusions
Integration of AMOD with traditional transportation modes can be achieved through the Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS). AMOD emphasizes the commodification of passenger mobility and goods delivery and transportation systems management, whereas MaaS primarily focuses on passenger mobility aggregation and subscription services. Recently, AMOD and MaaS have been converging even more, as the public and private sectors increasingly emphasize concepts of integrated mobility.
This article describes the real-time Automated Mobility On Demand service in the Yélo DETA project in La Rochelle. This service will ensure the link between the public transport and the last and the first km. The new Yélo DETA MOD service is designed to better meet the needs of habitants, with the objective of 4 shuttles at level 4 of automation, without an on-board operator, at a maximum speed of 60km/h in rural areas and without any specific infrastructure.
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