Introduction
Meanings Attributed to Smiles
Cultural Predictors of Smile Perception
Method
Participants and Selection of Cultures
coll. | anlz. | fem. | fem. | age | age | intell. | hones. | intell. | hones. | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N
|
N
|
N
| % |
M
|
SD
|
α
|
α
|
d
|
d
| |
Albania | 119 | 90 | 50 | 56 | 20.81 | 2.05 | .81 | .69 | .14 | .44 |
Argentina | 104 | 80 | 51 | 64 | 33.77 | 10.53 | .76 | .73 | .04 | −.03 |
Australia | 120 | 112 | 86 | 77 | 19.74 | 3.93 | .91 | .83 | .24 | .70 |
Austria | 109 | 95 | 60 | 63 | 25.57 | 6.35 | .92 | .88 | .49 | .56 |
Brazil | 120 | 103 | 68 | 66 | 23.89 | 5.70 | .77 | .71 | .31 | .47 |
Canada | 117 | 86 | 49 | 57 | 20.34 | 4.05 | .92 | .88 | .20 | .56 |
China | 120 | 111 | 51 | 46 | 23.09 | 4.10 | .84 | .85 | .54 | .53 |
Colombia | 120 | 113 | 70 | 62 | 27.66 | 13.46 | .81 | .75 | .05 | .69 |
Denmark | 112 | 106 | 53 | 50 | 23.61 | 2.90 | .91 | .81 | .31 | .51 |
Egypt | 93 | 61 | 49 | 80 | 20.79 | 4.45 | .85 | .76 | .37 | .53 |
France | 120 | 102 | 61 | 60 | 28.19 | 8.77 | .90 | .86 | −.16 | .23 |
Georgia | 120 | 115 | 58 | 50 | 25.30 | 10.06 | .70 | .69 | .22 | .54 |
Germany | 81 | 78 | 36 | 46 | 22.71 | 6.02 | .84 | .76 | 1.01 | .43 |
Greece | 125 | 120 | 62 | 52 | 20.82 | 1.59 | .85 | .76 | −.04 | .62 |
Hong Kong | 120 | 112 | 49 | 44 | 20.44 | 1.77 | .68 | .76 | .01 | .26 |
Hungary | 118 | 105 | 57 | 54 | 21.28 | 3.79 | .86 | .78 | .00 | .41 |
India Karnataka | 120 | 92 | 49 | 53 | 21.15 | 2.77 | .83 | .50 | −.03 | −.08 |
India Kerala | 120 | 104 | 54 | 52 | 20.32 | 1.26 | .79 | .62 | −.41 | .03 |
Indonesia | 120 | 120 | 60 | 50 | 19.58 | 1.37 | .75 | .69 | .09 | .00 |
Iran | 48 | 42 | 31 | 74 | 21.21 | 4.08 | .79 | .70 | −.40 | .09 |
Ireland | 120 | 104 | 46 | 44 | 19.35 | 3.08 | .88 | .80 | .14 | .51 |
Israel | 99 | 83 | 31 | 37 | 26.24 | 5.15 | .87 | .84 | −.12 | .26 |
Italy | 160 | 151 | 137 | 91 | 23.12 | 6.14 | .82 | .79 | .01 | .56 |
Japan | 109 | 103 | 52 | 51 | 19.24 | 1.21 | .82 | .83 | −.41 | .47 |
Kuwait | 300 | 298 | 132 | 44 | 21.46 | 3.22 | .71 | .62 | .12 | .31 |
Malaysia | 120 | 100 | 73 | 73 | 22.81 | 4.34 | .88 | .80 | .57 | .55 |
Maldives | 120 | 95 | 44 | 46 | 24.09 | 2.99 | .78 | .55 | .08 | −.01 |
Mexico | 136 | 105 | 54 | 51 | 21.07 | 2.34 | .91 | .82 | −.09 | .35 |
Nigeria | 120 | 112 | 59 | 53 | 19.16 | 1.56 | .83 | .70 | .25 | .35 |
Norway | 97 | 85 | 50 | 59 | 22.22 | 3.76 | .87 | .70 | .05 | .41 |
Pakistan | 190 | 137 | 68 | 50 | 21.52 | 3.22 | .78 | .63 | .26 | .19 |
Philippines | 120 | 114 | 83 | 73 | 19.22 | 2.00 | .83 | .78 | .35 | .70 |
Poland | 76 | 68 | 48 | 71 | 22.69 | 1.81 | .90 | .79 | −.02 | .43 |
Portugal | 120 | 111 | 62 | 56 | 22.03 | 3.15 | .79 | .67 | .25 | .61 |
Russia | 120 | 113 | 71 | 63 | 22.33 | 1.87 | .87 | .79 | −.28 | .21 |
So. Afr. n-white | 115 | 41 | 24 | 59 | 20.93 | 1.82 | .83 | .76 | −.02 | .46 |
So. Afr. white | 115 | 43 | 21 | 49 | 20.93 | 1.82 | .83 | .76 | .10 | .51 |
South Korea | 120 | 112 | 62 | 55 | 20.81 | 2.25 | .74 | .70 | −.36 | .52 |
Switzerland | 107 | 99 | 59 | 60 | 25.04 | 5.62 | .92 | .90 | .96 | .91 |
Taiwan | 68 | 61 | 37 | 61 | 19.51 | .94 | .81 | .78 | .15 | .48 |
Turkey | 134 | 127 | 64 | 50 | 22.57 | 2.71 | .76 | .65 | .22 | .36 |
UK | 120 | 111 | 59 | 53 | 23.82 | 8.99 | .88 | .80 | .32 | .62 |
USA | 84 | 79 | 52 | 66 | 24.06 | 9.81 | .94 | .90 | .15 | .50 |
Zimbabwe | 120 | 120 | 60 | 50 | 22.82 | 3.70 | .66 | .55 | .16 | .02 |
Average | 119 | 103 | 58 | 57 | 22.44 | 4.15 | .83 | .75 | .13 | .40 |
Total | 5216 | 4519 | 2552 | 56 | 22.36 | 5.50 | .85 | .79 | .12 | .39 |
Materials
Results
Intelligence perception | Honesty perception |
df
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
F
|
η squared
|
F
|
η squared
| ||
Smile |
45.9***
|
.010
|
540.6***
|
.109
| 1, 4425 |
Culture |
13.3***
|
.115
|
20.3***
|
.165
| 43, 4425 |
PG |
94.2***
|
.021
|
50.2***
|
.011
| 1, 4425 |
TG |
24.5***
|
.006
|
78.6***
|
.017
| 1, 4425 |
Smile × culture |
5.9***
|
.054
|
4.5***
|
.042
| 43, 4425 |
Smile × PG |
6.7**
|
.002
|
11.2**
|
.003
| 1, 4425 |
Smile × TG | 1.5 | .000 |
41.9***
|
.009
| 1, 4425 |
Culture × PG |
3.9***
|
.037
|
2.3***
|
.022
| 43, 4425 |
Culture × TG |
4.3***
|
.040
|
4.2***
|
.039
| 43, 4425 |
PG × TG |
47.4***
|
.011
| 1.7 | .000 | 1, 4425 |
Smile × culture × PG | .8 | .008 | 1.3 | .012 | 43, 4425 |
Smile × culture × TG | 1.3 | .013 | 1.0 | .010 | 43, 4425 |
Smile × PG × TG | .5 | .000 | 1.0 | .000 | 1, 4425 |
Culture × PG × TG |
1.7**
|
.016
| 1.1 | .010 | 43, 4425 |
Smile × culture × PG × TG | 1.1 | .011 | .6 | .006 | 43, 4425 |
Intelligence d
| Honesty d
| |
---|---|---|
Correlations (r)
| ||
Cultural practices (GLOBE project) | ||
Uncertainty avoidance |
.63***
| .24 |
Power distance | −.16 | −.28 |
Institutional collectivism | −.14 | .05 |
In-group collectivism | −.29 | −.37* |
Gender egalitarianism | −.06 | .16 |
Assertiveness | .21 | .20 |
Future orientation | .36* | .28 |
Performance orientation | .22 | .11 |
Humane orientation | −.03 | −.17 |
Cultural values (Schwartz—S; Hofstede—H) | ||
Harmony—S | .26 | .28 |
Embeddedness—S | −.22 | −.32* |
Hierarchy—S | −.34* | −.35* |
Mastery—S | −.22 | −.21 |
Affective autonomy—S | .17 | .18 |
Intellectual autonomy—S | .24 | .36* |
Egalitarianism—S | .32* | .35* |
Power distance—H | −.21 | −.25 |
Individualism—H | .13 | .23 |
Masculinity—H | .09 | .23 |
Uncertainty avoidance—H | −.30 | .00 |
Long term orientation—H | .02 | .05 |
Indulgence—H | .15 | .34* |
Social axioms (Bond et al. 2004) | ||
Dynamic externality | .06 | −.36 |
Societal cynicism | −.13 | −.29 |
Corruption indexes | ||
Corruption perception index—ranking | −.23 |
−.53***
|
Global corruption barometer—paying bribe | −.27 |
−.53**
|
Bribe payers index | .41 |
.59**
|
Economic freedom Index—corruption | .28 |
.51***
|
Socio-economic indexes | ||
GDP per capita
| .21 | .38* |
GDP PPP | −.01 | −.02 |
GINI index | −.01 | −.07 |
Historical heterogeneity (vs. homogeneity) | .09 | .29 |
Life expectation at birth | .09 | .38* |
Literacy rate | −.29 | .23 |
Military expenditures (% GDP) | −.22 | −.09 |
Population density | −.09 | −.14 |
Population growth | .05 | −.10 |
Rural population (% total) | −.02 | −.32* |
Unemployment rate | −.13 | −.08 |
Regressions (β) | ||
Model 1 | ||
Uncertainty avoidance (GLOBE) |
.65***
| – |
GDP per capita
| .02 | – |
GINI Index | .15 | – |
Model 2 | ||
Corruption perception index | – | −.48* |
GDP per capita
| – | −.02 |
Life expectation at birth | – | .03 |
Rural population (% total) | – | −.01 |
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
DV: perceived intelligence | DV: perceived honesty | |||
IV culture: uncertainty avoidance | IV culture: Corruption Perceptions Index | |||
Intercept | 4.7459 (0.2719)*** | 4.7399 (0.2557)*** | 4.6347 (0.0688)*** | 4.62484 (0.0659)*** |
Culture | 0.0105 (0.0651) | 0.0055 (0.0612) | −0.0007 (0.0008) | −0.0004 (0.0007) |
Smile | −0.8997 (0.1684)*** | −0.7745 (0.0907)*** | 0.3419 (0.0372)*** | 0.3233 (0.0226)*** |
PG | −0.8322 (0.2162)*** | −0.5479 (0.1466)*** | −0.1399 (0.0455)** | −0.1099 (0.0167)*** |
TG | −0.0153 (0.1684) | −0.0777 (0.0118)*** | −0.1409 (0.0372)*** | −0.1307 (0.0226)*** |
Culture × smile | 0.2420 (0.0405)*** | 0.2096 (0.0217)*** | −0.0014 (0.0005)** | −0.0017 (0.0003)*** |
Culture × PG | 0.1489 (0.0520)** | 0.0891 (0.0355)* | 0.0009 (0.0006) | – |
Smile × PG | 0.2191 (0.2596) | – | −0.0255 (0.0560) | – |
Culture × TG | −0.0349 (0.0405) | – | −0.0013 (0.0005)** | −0.0011 (0.0003)*** |
Smile × TG | 0.1016 (0.2381) | – | 0.1876 (0.0526)*** | 0.1780 (0.0225)*** |
PG × TG | 0.4127 (0.2596) | – | 0.0388 (0.0560) | – |
Culture × smile × PG | −0.0698 (0.0621) | – | −0.0009 (0.0007) | – |
Culture × smile × TG | −0.0146 (0.0572) | – | 0.0002 (0.0007) | – |
Culture × PG × TG | −0.0658 (0.0621) | – | 0.0003 (0.0007) | – |
Smile × PG × TG | −0.1263 (0.3671) | – | −0.0538 (0.0791) | – |
Culture × smile × PG × TG | 0.0322 (0.0878) | – | 0.0001 (0.0010) | – |