1 Introduction
2 Conceptual Background and Framework
2.1 The Asset-Based Approach
3 Methodology
3.1 Study Area
3.2 Data Collection and Analysis
Variable | Measurement | Expected relationship with coping practices | Adapted source(s)a
|
---|---|---|---|
Coping practice | Sum of unique coping options (for example, sale of livestock) carried out at a stretch by the household for no more than 7 months a year in the previous 5 years | – | Parvin et al. (2009) |
Household size | Number of members in the household | Positive | Yohe and Tol (2002) |
Gender | Household is male headed (binary variable): 1 = male, 0 = otherwise | Positive | Cutter et al. (2008) |
Age | Age of the household head (years) | Positive | Cutter et al. (2008) |
Female–male ratio | Ratio between male and female members in the household | Negative | Below et al. (2012) |
Dependency ratio | Ratio of household members aged 10 years or younger and 64 years or older to number of household members between 11 and 63 years old | Negative | Below et al. (2012) |
Literacy level | Number of school years completed by the household head | Positive | Démurger and Fournier (2011) |
Social capital | Duration of staying in the current region (in years) | Positive | Ahsan and Warner (2014) |
Per capita consumption expenditure | Annual per capita consumption for basic needs in USD in household (proxy for poverty) | Positive | Ahsan and Warner (2014) |
Perception of weather-related anomalies | Number of weather parameter changes (such as temperature, hazard frequency, and so on) perceived by the household in the two decades prior to year 2009b
| Positive | |
Resource index | Index value for given resources of the household (proxy of wealth indicator)c
| Positive | Adger and Kelly (1999) |
Information sources | Number of information source(s) (such as television, radio, local volunteer, mobile telephone, and so on) used by the household since November 2007 for the purpose of collecting weather-related information and forecastsd
| Positive | Saroar and Routray (2011) |
Safety-net membership | Affiliation of the household with either a government or nongovernment operated safety-net program (binary variable): yes = 1, otherwise = 0 | Positive | Heltberg et al. (2009) |
Preparedness training participation | Household attended disaster preparedness training before cyclone Aila (binary variable): yes = 1, otherwise = 0 | Positive | Forgette and Van Boening (2009) |
4 Results
Characteristics | Downstreama (n = 180) | Upstreama (n = 180) | Test statistic (p value) (effect size) |
---|---|---|---|
Household size | 4.54 (±1.53) | 5.38 (±1.82) | 4.77b (p < 0.000) [0.18c] |
Households with male heads (%) | 76.67 | 87.22 | 6.78d (p < 0.000) [0.26c] |
Female–male ratio | 0.87 (±0.66) | 1.08 (±0.69) | 2.89b (p < 0.004) [0.15c] |
Dependency ratio | 0.501 (±0.21) | 0.336 (±0.16) | 8.74b (p < 0.000) [0.41c] |
Literacy level of household heads (school years) | 3.61 (±2.43) | 5.28 (±3.49) | 5.27b (p < 0.000) [0.25c] |
Living duration in the same community (years) | 36.81 (±15.76) | 40.36 (±13.56) | 2.29b (p < 0.023) [0.12c] |
Per capita consumption expenditure/year (USD) | 106.55 (±68.75) | 183.48 (±92.57) | 8.95b (p < 0.000) [0.43c] |
Households living below the poverty threshold (%) | 82.22 | 71.78 | 23.57d (p < 0.000) [0.26c] |
Dependent on natural sources for livelihood (%) | 79.66 | 71.10 | 5.29d (p < 0.001) [0.31c] |
Households living in weak houses (mud, straw, wood, and other light materials) (%) | 84.78 | 76.0 | 10.86d (p < 0.001) [0.17c] |
Land ownership (%) | 37.78 | 61.11 | 33.0d (p < 0.000) [0.29c] |
Electricity (%) | 8.33 | 28.89 | 25.11d (p < 0.000) [0.26c] |
Sanitary latrine (%) | 48.33 | 70.0 | 17.49d (p < 0.000) [0.22c] |
Access to clean water (%) | 17.19 | 33.21 | 9.08d (p < 0.001) [0.26c] |
Perception of weather anomalies (number of weather indicator changes detected) | 4.49 (±1.67) | 6.0 (±1.28) | 9.56b (p < 0.000) [0.45c] |
Information source accessed by households (number) | 2.05 (±1.42) | 3.74 (±1.11) | 9.57b (p < 0.000) [0.45c] |
Economic damage incurred due to hazards by household/year (USD) | 151.06 (±22.92) | 137.76 (±15.88) | 6.39b (p < 0.000) [0.32c] |
Killed/injured (number) | 0.92 | 0.66 | 3.52b (p < 0.000) [0.18c] |
Participation in disaster preparedness training since November 2007 (%) | 34.44 | 83.89 | 91.07d (p < 0.000) [0.50c] |
4.1 General Characteristics of the Sampled Respondents
4.2 Hazard Events and Damage
Hazards | Region | Chi-squared value (p value) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Downstream (n = 180) | Upstream (n = 180) | ||||
Yes (%) | No (%) | Yes (%) | No (%) | ||
Increase in cyclones with storm surge frequency | 79.44 | 20.56 | 76.59 | 23.41 | χ2(1)a = 6.64 (p < 0.010) [0.29b] |
Increase in flash flood frequency | 78.42 | 21.58 | 76.22 | 23.78 | χ2(1)a = 0.84 (p < 0.668) [0.14b] |
Change in rainfall pattern | 60.56 | 39.44 | 58.33 | 41.67 | χ2(1)a = 0.184 (p < 0.668) [0.02b] |
Increase in average temperature | 52.78 | 47.22 | 66.11 | 33.89 | χ2(1)a = 33.64 (p < 0.000) [0.13b] |
Increase in soil salinity intrusion | 66.11 | 33.89 | 35.56 | 64.44 | χ2(1)a = 33.62 (p < 0.000) [0.31b] |
Increase in average duration of water-logging | 63.33 | 36.67 | 40.56 | 59.44 | χ2(1)a = 18.71 (p < 0.000) [0.28b] |
Increase in riverbank erosion | 50.12 | 49.88 | 39.66 | 60.34 | χ2(1)a = 59.88 (p < 0.000) [0.40b] |
Irregularity in season duration | 36.11 | 63.89 | 66.67 | 33.33 | χ2(1)a = 31.78 (p < 0.000) [0.31b] |
4.3 Coping Mechanism
Coping practices | Downstream (n = 180) | Upstream (n = 180) | Test statistic (p value) (effect size) |
---|---|---|---|
Water management
| |||
Construction of reservoir in household for ex situ rain water harvest | 46.67 | 59.44 | 5.89c (p < 0.015) [0.13d] |
Groundwater collection for household use and agricultural production | 35.0 | 55.56 | 15.35c (p < 0.001) [0.21d] |
Surface water collection for agricultural production | 28.89 | 56.11 | 27.29a (p < 0.000) [0.28d] |
Irrigation from canal/river for agricultural production | 25.0 | 48.89 | 22.05c (p < 0.000) [0.25d] |
Agricultural adjustment
| |||
Homestead forestry | 28.33 | 50.56 | 18.61c (p < 0.000) [0.23d] |
Use of organic fertilizer | 6.11 | 39.44 | 56.85c (p < 0.000) [0.40d] |
Use of inorganic fertilizer | 5.01 | 46.67 | 81.55c (p < 0.000) [0.48d] |
Rotation of crops | 19.44 | 58.11 | 54.02c (p < 0.000) [0.45d] |
Flood resistant paddy | 27.78 | 61.67 | 41.81c (p < 0.000) [0.34d] |
Production of vegetables in off-season | 17.80 | 61.11 | 40.5c (p < 0.000) [0.34d] |
Sale of cattle | 16.11 | 67.22 | 69.97c (p < 0.000) [0.44d] |
Sale of poultry | 66.11 | 60.56 | 1.20c (p < 0.274) [0.06d] |
Mixed vegetable production | 18.33 | 61.67 | 70.41c (p < 0.000) [0.44d] |
Floating vegetable garden | 58.89 | 21.67 | 51.84c (p < 0.000) [0.40d] |
Seasonal fishing | 42.22 | 28.33 | 7.60c (p < 0.006) [0.15d] |
Sharecropping | 36.11 | 65.56 | 31.22c (p < 0.000) [0.29d] |
Nonagricultural diversification
| |||
Cottage industry (pottery, bamboo and cane goods, and cool mat) | 30.56 | 51.11 | 15.74c (p < 0.000) [0.21d] |
Daily labora
| 62.78 | 47.78 | 8.19c (p < 0.004) [0.15d] |
Off-farm contract worka
| 70.56 | 38.33 | 37.67c (p < 0.000) [0.32d] |
Seasonal business | 29.44 | 38.89 | 3.56c (p < 0.059) [0.10d] |
Forest resource collection | 56.22 | 27.22 | 6.83c (p < 0.010) [0.14d] |
Brokerb
| 54.44 | 23.33 | 36.65c (p < 0.000) [0.32d] |
Renting land for shrimp farming | 37.22 | 36.11 | 1.25c (p < 0.660) [0.05d] |
Temporary migration | 58.89 | 26.67 | 38.17c (p < 0.000) [0.33d] |
4.4 Regression Results
Variables | Coping practices downstream | Coping practices upstream | Coping practices in Koyra (both regions) |
---|---|---|---|
Household size | 0.245*** (0.0803) | 0.115* (0.0659) | 0.185*** (0.0532) |
Gender | 0. 129 (0. 274) | −0.648* (0.350) | 0.163 (0.222) |
Female–male ratio | −0.0759 (0.172) | −0.291* (0.156) | −0.131 (0.120) |
Dependency ratio | −4.188*** (0.649) | −4.795*** (0.973) | −4.380*** (0.544) |
Literacy level of household heads | −0.171*** (0.0489) | 0.00705 (0.0320) | −0.0563** (0.0266) |
Social capital | −0.00311 (0.00770) | 0.00826 (0.00805) | 0.00196 (0.00581) |
Per capita consumption expenditure/year | 0.553*** (0.0154) | 0.653*** (0.0163) | 0.709*** (0.0114) |
Perceived weather anomalies | 0.139** (0.0752) | 0.800*** (0.031) | 0.336*** (0.0656) |
Resource index | −0.143 (0.706) | 0.351 (0.645) | 0.333 (0.502) |
Information source | 0.197** (0.0855) | 0.135 (0.103) | 0.277*** (0.0606) |
Safety-net membership | 0.120 (0.239) | 0.0778 (0.241) | 0.205 (0.176) |
Preparedness training participation | 2.298*** (0.286) | 0.472 (0.358) | 1.909*** (0.225) |
Constant | 7.575*** (0.865) | 5.526*** (1.159) | 6.040*** (0.650) |
F-statistics | 34.73 (12, 167) (p < 0.000) | 41.05 (12, 167) (p < 0.000) | 106.82 (12, 347) (p < 0.000) |
Observations | 180 | 180 | 360 |
Adjusted R-squared | 0.714 | 0.747 | 0.787 |