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2021 | Buch

Catalysis for Clean Energy and Environmental Sustainability

Biomass Conversion and Green Chemistry - Volume 1

herausgegeben von: Prof. K. K. Pant, Sanjay Kumar Gupta, Ejaz Ahmad

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Über dieses Buch

This book is part of a two-volume work that offers a unique blend of information on realistic evaluations of catalyst-based synthesis processes using green chemistry principles and the environmental sustainability applications of such processes for biomass conversion, refining, and petrochemical production. The volumes provide a comprehensive resource of state-of-the-art technologies and green chemistry methodologies from researchers, academics, and chemical and manufacturing industrial scientists. The work will be of interest to professors, researchers, and practitioners in clean energy catalysis, green chemistry, chemical engineering and manufacturing, and environmental sustainability.

This volume focuses on the potentials, recent advances, and future prospects of catalysis for biomass conversion and value-added chemicals production via green catalytic routes. Readers are presented with a mechanistic framework assessing the development of product selective catalytic processes for biomass and biomass-derived feedstock conversion. The book offers a unique combination of contributions from experts working on both lab-scale and industrial catalytic processes and provides insight into the use of various catalytic materials (e.g., mineral acids, heteropolyacid, metal catalysts, zeolites, metal oxides) for clean energy production and environmental sustainability.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass and Upgrading of Bio-Products to Produce Fuels and Chemicals
Abstract
The considerable growth in energy demands and limited fossil fuel sources, together with environmental concerns, have forced the study of renewable, green and sustainable energy sources. Biomass and its residues can be transformed into valued chemicals and fuels with several thermal conversion processes, which are combustion, gasification and pyrolysis. Combustion is a chemical process that involves the rapid reaction of substances with oxygen, producing heat. Gasification produces synthesis gas at high temperatures (800–1200 °C) to generate heat and power. Pyrolysis has been applied for many years for charcoal formation, while intermediate and fast pyrolysis processes have become of significant interest in recent years. The reason for this interest is that these processes provide different bio-products (bio-oil, synthesis gas and biochar), which can be applied directly in various applications or as a sustainable energy carrier. The present chapter covers an overview of the fundamentals of slow, intermediate and fast pyrolysis, followed by the properties and applicability of the pyrolysis products. This study also identifies the features and advantages of the thermo-catalytic reforming (TCR) process in comparison with other technologies. This report presents a comprehensive literature review of bio-oil production and upgrading methods. In addition, the most common catalysts and supports for different upgrading methods are introduced. Finally, the current pathways for 2-methylfuran (2-MF) formation and the selection of xylose-rich biomass are discussed.
Hessam Jahangiri, João Santos, Andreas Hornung, Miloud Ouadi
Biochemical Conversion of Residual Biomass: An Approach to Fuel Gas and Green Fertilizers
Abstract
Energy demand growth along with intensified global efforts to promote circular economy for solving environmental problems while obtaining high value-added products has increased the interest for valorization of the residual biomass that is abundantly generated in agriculture and various industries. This chapter is an overall contribution aiming to emphasize and clarify some theoretical and practical aspects on the biochemical conversion of biomass into fuel gases (biomethane and biohydrogen) and other valuable by-products. The residual biomass is very diverse, but the quality of the substrate and the biochemical technology, as well as the processing parameters, determine the type and composition of the conversion products. Hence, particular attention is given to substrate evaluation and pretreatment techniques for increasing the conversion yields and the process economic viability. The metabolic pathways of microbial processes and the technological parameters are analysed and discussed for both biomethane and biohydrogen. Some current and innovative methods of biogas upgrading with a focus on the market applications of the biochemical conversion to fuel gases are comprehensively approached. Also, the chapter presents an overview on the technological possibilities and economic benefits of using by-products as green fertilizers for agriculture, briefly mentioning some other ways for waste recovery to value-added products. In addition to analysing current achievements in this field of research, the chapter aims to identify gaps and bring to light some issues that need to be studied in greater depth so as to make the biochemical conversion processes of biomass feasible and widely applicable in industry.
Carmen Mateescu, Andreea-Daniela Dima
Bio-Catalytic Itaconic Acid and Bio-Based Vinyl Monomer Production Processes
Abstract
The production of polymers in the present society has relied heavily on fossil resources. It is not impossible to imagine the world without plastic-based materials. The production of plastic globally has surpassed 8300 million metric tons that utilized around 7% of fossil fuels. The limited availability of fossil-based sources has driven the research and development to find out alternative sources for the synthesis of polymers. In this regard lignocellulosic biomass is an interesting feedstock for the synthesis of polymers. However, the overall production cost of the as-synthesized sustainable polymers is the major obstacle that needs to be addressed. This chapter described the sustainable bio-catalytic pathways for the production of four important sustainable vinyl monomers: itaconic acid, acrylic acid, methacrylic acid, and styrene. Annual production of these monomers exceeds 26 million tons, albeit from non-renewable feedstocks. They provide the backbone to produce polyesters, polyacrylates, polystyrene adhesives, protective coatings, paints, resins, rubbers, and other copolymers.
Kalpana Avasthi, Ashish Bohre, Basudeb Saha, Blaž Likozar
Biological and Environmental Degradations of Polyamides, Polylactic Acid, and Chitin for Future Prospects
Abstract
Lately, the development of biobased polymers has been gaining attraction worldwide. Bio-based materials such as polyamide (PA), polylactic acid (PLA), and chitin have been in great demand. They hold great value in a variety of fields including in the automobile industry, packaging materials, as well as biomedical applications. For example, the biodegradable drug-eluting stents with flexibility, high mechanical property, and targeted drug releasing property can replace the conventional ones to prevent restenosis. This chapter presents the recent trends and developments of polyester, polyamide, and chitin and the future scientific challenges in the degradation of these polymers. Moreover, it presents the promising development of polyester, polyamide, and chitin degradation as well as the ways of improving their functionalities and wide range of applications towards the efficient waste management.
Mohammad Asif Ali, Sukhdev Singh, Maninder Singh, Gargi Joshi
Plant Microbial Fuel Cell as a Biomass Conversion Technology for Sustainable Development
Abstract
Plant photosynthesis is one of nature’s best gifts to humankind for converting solar energy into chemical energy in the form of carbohydrates and energy. Plant microbial fuel cells (PMFCs) or photosynthetic MFCs integrate the principles of photosynthesis and fuel cell to convert such synthesized carbohydrates and organic matter into electricity by microbial oxidation in the rhizosphere of plants. Also, plants utilize nutrients from effluent streams for self-growth and metabolism, reducing the nutrient load and heavy metal concentration, and are capable to degrade contaminants. Performance of PMFC is governed by various parameters such as selection of plant species, rhizodeposits, design of MFC, electrode properties, inoculum characteristics, wastewater properties, etc. This chapter discussed the basics of PMFC to applications for real field. According to applications, PMFC designs can be varied as constructed MFC, microbial carbon capture cells, microbial solar cells, floating islands, hydroponics-MFC, and paddy field MFC. Thus, simultaneous organic matter degradation, biomass recovery, oxygen release for cathodic reduction, CO2 sequestrations, nutrient removal, and heavy metal removal along with electricity generation can be achieved in PMFC.
D. A. Jadhav, D. Ghosal, A. D. Chendake, S. Pandit, T. K. Sajana
Catalytic and Non-Catalytic Hydrothermal Liquefaction of Microalgae
Abstract
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is an attractive thermochemical pathway that converts microalgal cells into biocrude which can be upgraded and refined into drop-in transportation fuel. HTL is propitious from an environmental sustainability standpoint because the reaction requires medium temperatures (200–400 °C) and high pressures (5–25 MPa) (subcritical and supercritical conditions) for a relatively short period of time (10–60 min) without the need for dewatering and drying of the microalgal culture (wet microalgae with cultivation culture). Instead, water provides dual use to the reaction: as a solvent and as a catalyst. At HTL conditions, water is a reactive nonpolar species with high miscibility in organics. It solubilizes even the recalcitrant microalgal components such as lignin to produce biocrude, aqueous, gaseous, and solid products. This chapter discusses the process and chemistry of microalgae HTL, the role of water in the reaction, the difference between catalytic and non-catalytic HTL as it applies to microalgae, and perspectives and direction on the state of research for microalgae HTL.
Eleazer P. Resurreccion, Sandeep Kumar
Catalytic and Non-Catalytic Methods for Biodiesel Production
Abstract
In this chapter, the technical difficulties of conventional base-catalyzed transesterification and conventional esterification process using concentrated sulfuric acid in a homogeneous form have been discussed in detail. The use of low-quality feedstocks like waste vegetable oils and non-edible oils for biodiesel production has been explored. To address the mass transfer limitations in the conventional transesterification process, the addition of a phase transfer catalyst such as tetramethylammonium bromide (TMAB) has been investigated. Thereafter, the esterification of Karanja oil with high free fatty acid content through a non-catalytic method has been discussed. Kinetic modeling of the non-catalytic esterification along with process simulation in Aspen Plus was performed. Finally, the potential application of corncob-derived solid acid catalyst (SAC) for the esterification of oleic acid to produce biodiesel has been discussed.
Zakir Hussain, Mohd Belal Haider, Mata Mani Tripathi, Rakesh Kumar
Castor Oil-Based Derivatives as a Raw Material for the Chemical Industry
Abstract
The use of fossil derived petrochemical products are expected to decrease due to the depletion of fossil resources and increasing environmental issues such as the impact of greenhouse gases, global warming, and rising population. Interest in plant oil-based rather than petroleum-based fuels is increasing as it is a renewable resource and easily availfd ble. Plant vegetable oil, like castor oil, has shown attractive physical and chemical properties in comparison with fossil fuels. The Castor oil derivatives are a combination of saturated and unsaturated fatty acid esters linked to the backbone of glycerol. Castor oil contains nearly 90% of ricinoleic acid having hydroxyl group, a double bond, a carboxylic group, and a long chain of hydrocarbon and also having different methods to convert into an essential bio-based alternative for petroleum-based industrial chemicals applications. Therefore, this chapter underlines the importance of castor oil or derivatives with its expected global market growth in the manufacture of such diverse materials and its geographical availability. Overall, this chapter provides a summary of castor oil, its development, and its resources.
Sagar Dhanuskar, S. N. Naik, K. K. Pant
Sustainability of the Catalytic Process for Biomass Conversion: Recent Trends and Future Prospects
Abstract
Depleting conventional resources and increasing energy demand have placed immense pressure on the environment and forced mankind to look for alternate and sustainable energy resources. Biomass is a promising resource which is environment friendly as well as sustainable. Lignocellulosic biomass can be fractionated into cellulose, hemicelluloses, and lignin, out of which the structure of lignin makes catalytic processing more challenging. The selection of suitable solvent, catalysts, and reaction conditions for biomass conversion has a vital role in the yield and composition of targeted products. Biomass can be converted into oil, gas, and char using a suitable catalyst and conversion processes. Valuable chemicals and transportation fuel can be generated from oil obtained from sustainable biomass such as agricultural waste, forestry products, inedible plants, etc. The product obtained from most of the conversion processes is a complex mixture of chemicals demanding further separation and upgradation. Catalytic oil upgradation is necessary before being used as a transportation fuel. It is essential to identify the basic/platform components that can be produced from biomass and serve as feedstock for the synthesis of the majority of the chemicals. Catalyst can facilitate the selective transformation of molecules provided it is sustainable in terms of its activity and regeneration. An emerging approach integrates various routes of biomass conversion technologies such as catalytic pyrolysis, hydrolysis, and liquefaction over a suitable solid catalyst to transform biomass into useful chemicals and fuels. This chapter summarizes the technological challenges to selectively convert biomass to oil or basic chemicals and fuels by catalytic processes.
Rohidas Bhoi, Virendra Kumar Saharan, Suja George, Sonal
Understanding Biomass Chemistry Using Multiscale Molecular Modeling Approach
Abstract
Catalytic upgradation of lignocellulosic biomass to produce value-added fuels and chemicals is technologically challenged due to the complexity of the biomass-derived substrates as well as the reaction media. In order to develop a potential biorefinery, fundamental understanding of the interaction of biomass-derived platform molecules with the catalyst surface and solvent and their behavior during a conversion process needs to be developed. In this regard, computational chemistry methods such as ab initio density functional theory (DFT), classical molecular dynamics (MD), ab initio molecular dynamics (AIMD), Car-Parrinello molecular dynamics (CPMD), etc. have made a valuable contribution. This chapter briefly describes the role of these methods in understanding the reaction mechanism on the catalyst surface and the role of solvents in biomass conversion processes and pyrolysis chemistry.
Shelaka Gupta
Levulinic Acid- and Furan-Based Multifunctional Materials: Opportunities and Challenges
Abstract
Currently, the world’s requirement for energy and chemicals is satisfied by tapping petroleum, coal, and natural gas resources. The continuously escalating energy demands for the betterment of life necessitate the search for alternate sources of energy. Sustainability, probably the “word of this century,” will be a prime force in stimulating scientists and technologists to look for alternate options in making fuels, chemicals and polymers that are irreplaceable in our lives. Renewable biomass, having useful carbon atoms, could be explored with significant potential to produce chemicals and materials that include polymers. The approach also has an intrinsic advantage of balancing CO2 emission, thereby aiding our environment. Researchers worldwide have made considerable advancements on biomass value addition for producing fuels, chemicals and materials. Broadly, biomass are categorized as lignocellulose and lipid-based wherein the former offers humungous scope of reaction chemistries that are deployable in a biorefinery akin to petro-refinery. Among them, levulinic acid (LA), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) and 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) and their related products render multifunctional properties with diverse opportunities for applications. In the last decade, intense research has been carried out on these molecules. In this chapter, we shall discuss the background of these platform chemicals, multifarious catalytic approaches made and process tools deployed, in particular for γ-valerolactone, LA-based plasticizers, HMF and FDCA. Challenges on these approaches and possible strategies to overcome them will also be discussed.
Sreedhar Gundekari, Rajathsing Kalusulingam, Bhavesh Dakhara, Mariappan Mani, Joyee Mitra, Kannan Srinivasan
Solid Acid-Catalyzed Esterification of Levulinic Acid for Production of Value-Added Chemicals
Abstract
In view of the growing threat of climate change, there is a need to put intense research efforts to reverse global warming effects. Use of inexpensive and abundantly available lignocellulose as a carbon source for reducing societal dependence on fossil fuels and anthropogenic CO2 emissions is vital in the current scenario. There is a need to emphasize on gradual shift from petroleum-based technologies toward renewable feedstock-based technologies for value-added chemical synthesis. Catalytic conversion of low-cost biomass into diversified industrially significant platform chemicals is of great research interest. Lignocellulose-derived levulinic acid (LA) is increasingly gaining attention among industrialists and academicians owing to its useful properties and potential industrial applications. Notable chemicals that are synthesized/derived from LA include levulinate esters, γ-valerolactone, acrylic acid, 1,4-pentanediol, β-acetylacrylic acid, α-angelica lactone, 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, δ-aminolevulinic acid, etc. Among these, levulinate esters find useful applications as plasticizing agents, fragrance chemicals, solvents, intermediates in organic process industries, oxygenate additives in fuels, etc. Levulinate esters are generally obtained by esterification reaction in the presence of suitable acid catalysts, either in homogeneous (liquid acid) and heterogeneous (solid acid) medium. The solid acid catalysts are mostly favored over liquid acids to avoid issues related to handling, separation, regeneration, and disposal due to the corrosive and toxic nature of liquid acids. This chapter presents a brief account on several value-added chemicals that are derived from LA and discussion on homogeneously and heterogeneously catalyzed esterification reaction of LA to yield various valuable levulinate esters. Zeolite-/mesozeolite-catalyzed esterification of LA to synthesize n-butyl levulinate and pentyl levulinate has been covered in detail. Zeolites as a heterogeneous catalyst are important in the development of cleaner technologies. This effort will serve as an aid for industrialists and academicians who are working in the area of conceptualizing LA biorefineries.
Kalpana C. Maheria, Aayushi Lodhi, Henilkumar Lankapati, Rishav Krishna
C(sp3)–H Bond Hetero-functionalization of Aliphatic Carboxylic Acid Equivalents Enabled by Transition Metals
Abstract
Aliphatic carboxylic acids and their common derivatives such as amides and esters, particularly embracing heteroatom-based substituents, are widespread among natural and synthetic complex molecular frameworks, ratified drugs, and various tailored materials. Conventional synthetic processes to access these compounds comprise multistep protocols that are virtually inconvenient and unsafe, generating large mass of wastes within the synthetic sequence. The straightforward transition metal-catalyzed installation of a heteroatom-based function via transforming a selective C–H bond of an aliphatic carboxylic acid equivalent has recently materialized as an attractive substitute to those multistep processes. In the latter case, the carboxylate group, either directly or in the form of an interconvertible directing group, controls the highly selective metal-promoted hetero-functionalization process in the alkyl chain residue through extraordinarily ordered transition states.
The current chapter summarizes the advances in the field of transition metal-enabled C(sp3)–H bond hetero-functionalization of aliphatic carboxylic acids and their synthetic equivalents. Due to substantial progress in recent years, only frequently employed transition metals, including palladium, nickel, copper, iron, and cobalt, which promoted reactions have been described. The chapter has been divided into two key subtopics: (1) directed C(sp3)–H hetero-functionalization approaches, in which the carboxylic acid or a promptly adaptable carboxylate equivalent actively binds to the metal catalyst and brings it close to the cleavable C(sp3)–H bond to facilitate further functionalization, and (2) non-directed C(sp3)–H hetero-functionalization approaches, in which the carboxylic acid equivalents passively control the metal-promoted C(sp3)–H functionalization. Gratifyingly, both approaches lead to regiospecific functionalization of carboxylic acid synthons at either proximal-selective α-C–H bonds or distal β-, γ-, and even δ-C–H bonds with various heteroatom-based substituents, e.g., O-, N-, S-, Se-, halogen-, B-, Si-, and recently Ge-based groups.
Aniket Gupta, Sreedhar Gundekari, Sukalyan Bhadra
Carbohydrates to Chemicals and Fuel Additives over ModifiedPolyoxometalate Catalysts
Abstract
The quest to produce chemicals and transportation fuels from sources other than conventional non-renewable fossil resources has shifted the focus and direction of research activities towards the utilization of cleaner renewable feedstock. Renewable resources like biomass are ever-abundant and also have an added advantage of being carbon rich that can be leveraged for the production of various chemicals. Biomass is the source of carbohydrates which are the major precursor to produce fine chemicals and fuel additives. The catalytic conversion of biomass-derived carbohydrates to chemicals and fuel additives has been an extensive topic of research lately. Among various fine chemicals derived from biomass, 5-hydroxymethylfurfurl, 5-ethoxymethylfurfurl, alkyl levulinates and gamma valerolactone are some value-added chemicals with immense potential. The preparation of these chemicals derived from biomass requires catalysts with specific active sites with desirable acid/base properties. A majority of these chemicals can be formed by acid catalysis of carbohydrates. This chapter mainly focuses on the conversion of carbohydrates to value-added chemicals over modified heteropoly acid catalysts with sufficient Bronsted/Lewis acidity. Supported and metal-exchanged heteropoly molybdate and tungstate catalysts are synthesized and utilized for the conversion of biomass-derived carbohydrates to chemicals. The activity of these catalysts is discussed on the basis of their acidic sites, surface properties and structural features. Operating conditions such as reaction temperature, reaction time, feed concentration, catalysts concentration, solvent volume and the type of reactor used are also briefly discussed in this chapter.
B. Srinivasa Rao, P. Krishna Kumari, N. Lingaiah
Catalytic Conversion of Biomass-Derived Glycerol to Value-Added Chemicals
Abstract
In the scenario of fossil fuel depletion, the promotion of renewable energy like biodiesel has intensified research. Due to this, another significant challenge has emerged which is to deal with the surplus by-product glycerol. In order to address the issue, production of value-added chemicals from glycerol is an efficient alternative pathway. Thus the renewability, bioavailability and exclusive structure of glycerol make it an appropriately attractive starting material for producing a broad number of crucial chemicals. Here in this chapter, we have reviewed the catalytic conversion of glycerol in terms of oxidation, dehydration, carbonylation, esterification and acetalization and kept our focus on products like acrylic acid, acrolein, glycerol carbonate, glycerol acetins and solketal, respectively. Recent studies regarding catalysts, reaction parameters and plausible pathways are discussed in detail.
Kushanava Bhaduri, Anindya Ghosh, Biswajit Chowdhury
Catalytic Conversion of Alcohols into Value-Added Products
Abstract
Alcohols belong to an important class of oxygenates, containing highly versatile hydroxyl (–OH) functional group(s) which are capable of undergoing a variety of chemical transformations, yielding fuels, fuel additives and a wide range of highly useful chemicals and chemical intermediates. Production of methanol, bioethanol and other higher alcohols in plenty, through various biomass conversion processes, has rendered them renewable and carbon-neutral in character and highly useful as platform chemicals. Novel catalytic processes for the conversion of aliphatic C1-C4 alcohols to C2-C4 olefins/building block chemicals, like ethylene, propylene, isobutene and butadiene, and oxygenates like aldehydes, esters and ethers and gasoline range hydrocarbons have been developed. Catalytic coupling of ethanol to higher alcohols followed by dehydration, oligomerization and hydrogenation to yield jet fuel and middle distillates results in the production of low-carbon renewable/sustainable fuels. Steam reforming and aqueous phase reforming of alcohols to produce hydrogen is yet another process option available for the transformation of alcohols that has several advantages over conventional, non-renewable methane steam reforming. Significant progress has been reported in the catalytic α-alkylation of ketone esters and amides with alcohols and aldol condensation of alcohols with other oxygenates like acetone/ketones. Catalytic upgradation of biomass-derived glycerol, furfuryl alcohol and sugar-derived alcohols like sorbitol, mannitol and xylitol results in a range of value-added products. The origin of such processes, process chemistry, development of catalysts, recent advances and future trends are covered in this chapter.
R. Vinayagamoorthi, B. Viswanathan, K. R. Krishnamurthy
Steam Reforming of Methanol, Ethanol and Glycerol over Catalysts with Mesoporous Supports: A Comparative Study
Abstract
Hydrogen generation via steam reforming of alcohols (SRA) has gained tremendous attention among green energy industries, research scientists and government policy makers. A variety of mesoporous heterogeneous catalysts used to produce hydrogen from alcohols like methanol (SRM), ethanol (SRE) and glycerol (SRG) are discussed. Siliceous mesoporous supports, e.g. SBA-15, MCM-41, MCM-48 and KIT-6, have proven to be substantially thermally stable compared to metal oxide supports such as TiO2, Al2O3 and CeO2. While Cu-based catalysts are commonly used for SRM, Ni- and Co-based catalysts are preferred for SRE and SRG reactions. Addition of promoters like group 1 and 2 metals to these monometallic catalysts significantly improves reducibility of the metal oxides as well as the basicity of the catalysts that minimize deactivation of catalysts by coking. Synergistic effects of bimetallic catalysts such as Cu-Ni, Pd-Ni and Ni-Co to increase hydrogen selectivity and long-term stability of the catalysts are discussed. Hydrogen selectivity and feed conversion of 100% can be attained depending on the reaction conditions like temperature, feed flow rate, type of catalyst, catalyst loading and alcohol/water molar ratio.
S. Bepari, R. Abrokwah, V. Deshmane, D. Kuila
Catalytic Production of High-Value Chemicals from High Volume Non-food Biomass
Abstract
Growing population and energy crises with depletion in fossil resources have necessitated efforts to find a sustainable solution. With circular production and abundant availability, biomass is regarded as an effective renewable option to produce chemicals and fuels. Every year, over 40 million tons of non-food biomass such as sugarcane bagasse, wheat straw, paddy straw, and wood shavings are produced. Many of them are thrown or burned in the open air leading to environmental pollution. Converting these discarded biomasses into chemicals and fuels could minimize waste disposal issues and reduce dependency on fossil fuels without competing with the demand for increased food production, which the world is facing due to shrinking landholdings and growing population. Indeed, it has the potential to reduce environmental issues associated with climate change and employment generation in rural areas. Herein, recent advances in non-food biomass conversion processes via chemo-catalytic routes are discussed. This chapter will not only give a better understanding of the current catalytic process on biomass but also provide proper direction in the development of successful biorefinery for a sustainable future.
Md. Imteyaz Alam
Efficient Nanocomposite Catalysts for Sustainable Production of Biofuels and Chemicals from Furanics
Abstract
In recent decade, the depletion of the finite fossil fuels and their consumptions related to environmental concerns have spearheaded the development of alternative routes for the production of energy and chemicals from renewable sources in sustainable manner and without causing a harmful effect to the environment. The biomass is the only organic carbon bearing renewable resource with the potential to produce energy and chemicals in a sustainable manner. The efficient transformation of biomass into biofuels and valued chemicals can take place from thermo-physical and thermo-chemical processes by various catalysts. The biomass-derived furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) are important furanic platform molecules, which can be further catalytically converted to biofuels/fuel additives and chemicals in integrated biorefinery. Hence, the carefully formulated various heterogeneous catalysts are expected to play a pivotal role for the development of green valorization processes of biomass-derived furfural and 5-hydroxymethylfurfural into valued chemicals and advanced biofuels/fuel additives under relatively mild conditions. The valorization processes can involve many types of reactions such as hydrogenation of the C=O bond, hydrogenation of the furan ring, oxidation, amination, condensation, and coupling. For these reactions, the catalytic materials have been classified into two subgroups such as metal and mixed metal oxide-based nanocomposite materials to discuss their physicochemical properties and active sites toward selective transformation of furfural and HMF into the desired products using appropriate references.
Mallesham Baithy, Deepak Raikwar, Debaprasad Shee
Waste Valorization of Water Hyacinth Using Biorefinery Approach: A Sustainable Route
Abstract
The concept of biorefinery can pave way for shifting to the circular economy by developing unified and multipurpose processes that convert biomass or waste into value-added products. One such waste is water hyacinth, which has the profound effect on the aquatic life as well as poses a challenge across the world for its control. It is the proliferative aquatic weed adversely affecting the environment. However, it has been found that the plant can become a useful source of various chemicals and fuel if used judiciously. Some important groups of phytochemicals like organic acids, sterols, phenolic components, etc. are present in roots, stems, leaves, petioles and flowers of this plant and are known for antioxidant, antibacterial, antifungal and anticancer activities. All these extractives have potential applications in food, pharmaceutical and promoting functional foods. Apart from phytochemicals, water hyacinth is extensively utilized in making fuel, sorbent, biopolymer, carbon fibre, composites, vermicompost and supercapacitor. The concept of biorefinery can be implemented in the effective utilization of water hyacinth due to its potential use in various fields. This review article focuses on various aspects of utilization of water hyacinth, thereby projecting it as a potential biorefinery candidate.
Priti V. Ganorkar, G. C. Jadeja, Jigisha K. Parikh, Meghal A. Desai
Furfural and Chemical Routes for Its Transformation into Various Products
Abstract
Vegetable biomass is basically made up of C6 and C5 sugars which constitutes of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin along with other energy storage products like lipids and starches. The global interest and need to reduce the dependency on crude oil for energy have motivated and directed the researchers and scientists to explore the field of biomass as a source of energy especially for transportation fuels for vehicles. Gradual development of technology has shifted the interest to derive the conventional petroleum-based chemicals from biomass components with functional groups. Henceforth catalytic reactions, various chemical routes via heterogeneous catalysis, homogeneous processes, enzyme reactions for transformation and conversion of lignocellulosic biomass to various bio-based value-added chemicals have been extensively and widely explored, with special interests on developing environmentally friendly processes involving mineral acids, bases, etc.
Chemical transformation of sugars, which are made up of monosaccharide and disaccharides (glucose, fructose, xylose), is the most important and explored reaction pathway due to its availability in biomass primary compounds. Three important nonpetroleum-based chemicals, i.e. furfural (FUR), 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (5-HMF) and levulinic acid (LA), are derived via thermal dehydration of pentose and hexose sugars. FUR is one of the important chemicals derived from biomass and also one of the key derivatives for producing significant nonpetroleum-derived chemicals. The annual production of FUR is about 300,000tTonne/year. FUR is commercially produced by hydrolysis of pentosan polymers in biomass to pentose sugars (xylose) which undergo acid catalysis under high temperatures and successive dehydration. Furfuryl alcohol (FAL) is one such important product produced from catalytic hydrogenation of FUR. Cannizzaro reaction of FUR further produces furoic acid (FuA) which is an important feedstock for organic synthesis and an intermediate compound in the production of medicines and perfumes. Further, hydroxymethylation of FUR with formaldehyde is the commercial method for producing hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF). Commercial production of furan and tetrahydrofuran (THF) is also via catalytic decarbonylation and successive hydrogenation of FUR.
The different kinds and types of catalysts used in these processes of hydrogenation, alkylation and reduction by various researchers over the period of time also need to be properly combined in a single source, so as to create an updated library of various reaction pathways done so far with FUR to produce various kinds of value-added chemicals.
Nayan J. Mazumdar, Rupam Kataki, K. K. Pant
A Sustainable Process for the Synthesis of Alkylpyrazines by Dehydrocyclization of Crude Glycerol and Ethylenediamine over Metal Chromite Catalysts
Abstract
Dehydrocyclization of ethylenediamine and crude glycerol was examined over ZnO-doped Cr2O3 catalyst. The 10 wt%-loaded Zn/Cr2O3 catalyst demonstrated a maximum rate of 2-methylpyrazine (2MP) production under the optimized reaction conditions. The prepared catalysts were investigated by various techniques such as PXRD, UV-DRS, XPS, FT-IR, and Raman spectroscopic analyses. Moreover, a correlation between Zn (wt%) loadings and the 2MP rate was established.
Reema Sarkari, Vankudoth Krishna, Chatla Anjaneyulu, Velisoju Vijay Kumar, Enumula Siva Sankar, Gutta Naresh, Akula Venugopal
The Role of Group VIII Metals in Hydroconversion of Lignin to Value-Added Chemicals and Biofuels
Abstract
Biomass utilization originating from inedible farming and forest waste, as a renewable feedstock for liquid biofuels and viable products, will have important environmental and social impacts in the future. Lignocellulose, the main nonedible component of biomass, is a primordial element abundantly rich in cellulosic compounds and lignins. The conversion of cellulose and hemicellulose to biofuels and valuable platform chemicals (such as levulinic acid, formic acid, furfural, γ-valerolactone and other derivatives) has long been studied, and great progress has been made in their industrial production. Lignin being a unique raw material has gained enormous attention in the recent years being an important source for sustainable and viable products. The successful conversion of lignin into value-added chemicals involves three main processes: (1) decomposition of lignocellulose, (2) depolymerization (3) upgradation to the desirable chemicals. The choice of catalyst in either homo- or heterogeneous systems is crucial for the effective depolymerization of lignin and upgrading to desirable chemicals. Hydro-processing (hydrogenolysis, hydrogenation, hydrodeoxygenation and hydro-demethoxylation) is a highly preferred, practical method for the depolymerization leading to production of valuable products and drugs. These reactions generally occur over metals, namely, platinum, palladium, ruthenium and nickel. This chapter aims to present a holistic analysis of the role of Group VIII metals in conversion of lignin and lignin-based aromatic monomers. This simplified summary will be useful to researchers for developing heterogeneous catalyst towards effective production of industrially sound products.
A. Sreenavya, P. P. Neethu, A. Sakthivel
Biochar as a Catalytic Material
Abstract
Biochar has recently emerged as a class of biomass-derived functional materials with the potential applications in environmental sustainability. The high activity, porosity, flexibility and cost-effectiveness of biochar, makes it a promising alternative to other conventional catalysts. In this chapter, we present a comprehensive review of the catalytic properties and catalytic applications of the biochar. We begin by discussing the biomass conversion and the generation of the biochar catalyst. We then examine the properties, functionalities and discuss the underlying mechanisms of the biochar as a catalyst. This is followed by the discussion of possible applications in biomass hydrolysis, isomerization and dehydration, for energy production, i.e., biofuel production, syngas production and tar decomposition. Further, we discuss its role as an environmental catalyst in the abatement of the contaminants. At the end, we compare the biochar catalysis with the conventional heterogeneous catalysis.
Prachi Singh
Biomass Conversion and Green Chemistry
Abstract
Chemicals and biofuels can be obtained from biological systems (biomass). Currently, biomass expenditures should be decreased by planning alternate methods and catalytic arrangements, because those used for hydrocarbons have not been efficiently adapted for the molecular structures of biological compounds. To avoid competitiveness with food sources, lignocellulosic feedstocks must to be used differently for expected yields, mostly in the biological production of fuel. A valuation of the life-cycle of feedstocks should be completed to determine environmental impacts and can be used as a exploratory tool for the development of products. Reasonable and modern advance needs nearing destruction, practical incomes of life. For the development of sustainable, low-cost, natural, basic materials, novel approaches in research, manufacturing, and the economy are crucial. This chapter focuses on cost-efficient tools and processes to convert biomass into valuable biological fuels and bioproducts, with particular emphasis on biorefinery concepts to create the diverse feedstocks that are used to manufacture high-value products. This chapter also explores the biological characteristics of developments, because the use of renewables as raw materials does not exempt them from green chemistry principles.
Avinash Ammanagi, Praveen Satapute, Shakeel Ahmed Adhoni, Shivakantkumar S. Adhikari, Sanjay Kumar Gupta, Sikandar I. Mulla
Nanostructured Photocatalysts for Degradation of Environmental Pollutants
Abstract
Water is the most essential life form on earth and a prerequisite for human survival. Due to manifold anthropogenic and industrial activities, voluminous discharge of diverse organic and inorganic pollutants has blown up into the water bodies. Organic pollutants, in particular, have a major contribution to the degradation of water quality on a vast scale. There is an exigent need for the abatement of these organic contaminants from water and wastewater. There are many conventional techniques of wastewater treatment including sedimentation, filtration, adsorption, reverse osmosis, ion exchange, coagulation and flocculation, and Fenton process. Photocatalysis is a highly efficient technique for the degradation of organic contaminants from water and wastewater. Several semiconducting materials have been used as photocatalysts, including ZnO, WO3, TiO2, Fe2O3, and ZnS, for the photocatalytic decomposition of multifarious organic pollutants. These semiconducting materials are highly beneficial for their application in the photocatalytic treatment of wastewater due to their favorable properties. They have favorable electronic structure, excellent charge transfer properties, a long lifetime in the excited state, high stability, low cost, and strong capability to absorb light. However, due to the wide gap, their application is limited to ultraviolet region with only 5% of the total spectrum of available solar light. So, modified metal oxide-based photocatalysts have been employed for the effective utilization of a wide visible spectrum of light. To modify and enhance the efficacy of these catalysts, various methodologies such as nano-structuring, metal doping, and genesis of nanocomposites have been engineered. These modified nanostructured photocatalysts provide an effective treatment potential to degrade organic water pollutants. This chapter outlines the potential and efficacy of metal oxide and modified metal oxide-based photocatalysts for the treatment of contaminants from water and wastewater.
Shafali, Surinder Singh, Sushil Kumar Kansal
Biohydrometallurgy: A Sustainable Approach for Urban Mining of Metals and Metal Refining
Abstract
Electronic waste (e-waste) is termed as “urban mines” due to high metal content. Metals are major components of e-waste and have a share of 61 wt% of e-waste. E-waste contains various valuable metals such as gold, silver, platinum, palladium, copper, nickel, etc. Therefore, metal recovery is important to conserve the resources. Apart from this, the unregulated accumulation and improper recycling of e-waste have harmful effects on human health and environment. Therefore, environmentally friendly e-waste recycling is the need of the hour to mitigate the harmful effects. Currently, pyrometallurgy and hydrometallurgy are the conventional processes employed for recovery of metals from e-waste. However, these technologies are non-selective and energy-intensive, employ hazardous chemicals, and produce toxic gases. Biohydrometallurgy is a promising alternative and is an eco-friendly approach to recycle e-waste as it employs microorganisms for metal recovery. Biohydrometallurgy employs different approaches such as autotrophic bacteria bioleaching, heterotrophic bacteria bioleaching, and heterotrophic fungi bioleaching for leaching of metals and has been discussed in this chapter. In addition, the refining of metals from metal leached solution has also been discussed in this chapter. The development of continuous process for metal recovery is important, and we have discussed a coiled flow inverter (CFI) reactor as a promising option for the same.
Prashant Ram Jadhao, Snigdha Mishra, Ashish Pandey, K. K. Pant, K. D. P. Nigam
Backmatter
Metadaten
Titel
Catalysis for Clean Energy and Environmental Sustainability
herausgegeben von
Prof. K. K. Pant
Sanjay Kumar Gupta
Ejaz Ahmad
Copyright-Jahr
2021
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-65017-9
Print ISBN
978-3-030-65016-2
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65017-9