Introduction
Methods
Materials
Rheological measurements
Fibre analysis
Dynamic light scattering
Composite manufacture
Microscopy and tomography
Differential scanning calorimetry
Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis
Tensile testing
Results and discussion
Rheological properties
Cellulose and EAA morphology
Cellulose type | Length (mm) | Width (\(\upmu \hbox {m}\)) | Fines (%) |
---|---|---|---|
CNF | 0.34 | 18.4 | 78.0 |
Pulp | 1.36 | 24.4 | 11.9 |
Composite microstructure
Thermal properties
Sample | Cellulose |
\(\hbox {T}_{\text {m1}}=51\pm 2\,{^{\circ }}\hbox {C}\)
|
\(\hbox {T}_{\text {m2}}=87\pm 1\,{^{\circ }}\hbox {C}\)
| |
---|---|---|---|---|
vol% | wt% | \(\hbox {X}_{c1}\) (%) | \(\hbox {X}_{c2}\) (%) | |
EAA | – | – | 3 | 16 |
EAA–CNF-10 | 10 | 15 | 2 | 15 |
EAA–CNF-20 | 20 | 28.4 | 6 | 14 |
EAA–CNF-30 | 30 | 40.5 | 5 | 12 |
EAA–CNF-40 | 40 | 51.4 | 3 | 15 |
EAA–CNF-50 | 50 | 61.3 | 5 | 12 |
EAA–CNF-60 | 60 | 70.4 | 5 | 14 |
EAA–CNF-70 | 70 | 78.8 | 6 | 10 |
EAA–Pulp-20 | 20 | 28.4 | 7 | 12 |
EAA–Pulp-50 | 50 | 61.3 | 4 | 10 |
EAA–Pulp-70 | 70 | 78.8 | 3 | 9 |
Tensile properties
Sample | Tensile properties | Effective stiffness | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
E (GPa) | \(\sigma _{\text {b}}\) (MPa) | \(\varepsilon _{\text {b}}\) (%) | \(\hbox {E}_{\text {f,l}}\) (GPa) | |
EAA |
\(0.3 \pm 0.1\)
|
\(24 \pm 1\)
|
\(491\pm 19\)
| – |
EAA–CNF-10 |
\(0.7 \pm 0.1\)
|
\(26 \pm 1\)
|
\(32 \pm 5 \)
| 9.4 |
EAA–CNF-20 |
\(1.6 \pm 0.1\)
|
\(37 \pm 1\)
|
\(14 \pm 2 \)
| 15.9 |
EAA–CNF-30 |
\(3 \pm 0.4\)
|
\(57 \pm 1 \)
|
\(8 \pm 1\)
| 22.3 |
EAA–CNF-40 |
\(4 \pm 0.6\)
|
\(64 \pm 12\)
|
\(8 \pm 2\)
| 21.4 |
EAA–CNF-50 |
\(4.3 \pm 0.3\)
|
\(65 \pm 5 \)
|
\(6 \pm 1\)
| 19.0 |
EAA–CNF-60 |
\(5.3 \pm 0.6\)
|
\(71 \pm 11\)
|
\(5 \pm 2\)
| 19.3 |
EAA–CNF-70 |
\(6.2 \pm 0.3\)
|
\(83 \pm 10\)
|
\(8 \pm 1\)
| 18.6 |
EAA–Pulp-20 |
\(1.8 \pm 0.5\)
|
\(35 \pm 3\)
|
\(6 \pm 1\)
| 18.6 |
EAA–Pulp-50 |
\(4.4 \pm 1.2\)
|
\(46 \pm 5\)
|
\(3 \pm 1\)
| 19.5 |
EAA–Pulp-70 |
\(4.9 \pm 0.2\)
|
\(55 \pm 4\)
| \(3 \pm 0\).3 | 13.7 |