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Chapter 1: Image, Evidence, Memory

verfasst von : Piotr Cieplak

Erschienen in: Death, Image, Memory

Verlag: Palgrave Macmillan UK

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Abstract

This chapter explores the media coverage of the genocide in Rwanda, journalistic practices and issues of access and ethics. It then briefly outlines how the genocide and its aftermath have been represented in fiction and documentary film before sketching out the theoretical framework for the book. It investigates the major debates about the relationship between still and moving documentary images and collective and individual memory, temporality, death, trauma and the notions of evidence and truth. The chapter includes a discussion of the political, moral and representational challenges to images of African violence and suffering disseminated in the West.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Introduction

Nächstes Kapitel Chapter 2: Images of After: Gilles Peress and Sebastião Salgado

For a discussion of the coverage of the genocide in international media, see Silverstein (1994), Dowden (1995, 2007), Hilsum (1995, 2007), Fox (1996), Wall (1997), Karnik (1998a, 1998b), Livingston and Eachus (1999), Fair and Parks (2001), Alozie (2007), Chaon (2007), Dottridge (2007), Doyle (2007), Giles (2007), Livingston (2007), Melvern (2007), Roskis (2007), Thompson (2007) and Wall (1997).

See for instance, Gourevitch (2000), Chaon (2007), Doyle (2007), Thompson (2007) and Möller (2013).

For a comparison of the news coverage of Rwanda and the Balkans see Myers, Klak and Koehl (1996).

The phrasing has a particular resonance in that a lot of the international press followed the politicians’ lead and avoided the word genocide.

It should be noted that the archive of genocide-related footage held at Rwanda Television is still relatively poorly explored so additional material may yet emerge from there.

There is some debate about whether it is the only footage of genocidal killings. I turn to this debate as well as to the footage itself in Chapter 5.

For novels, travel writing, memoirs and survivor and perpetrator testimony see (note that this is just a selection from a vast body of material): Keane (1996), Mukagasana (1997, 2001), Jennings (1998), Gourevitch (2000), Tadjo (2002), Dallaire (2004), Courtemanche (2004), Mujawayo and Belhaddad (2004, 2006), Diop (2006), Hatzfeld (2006, 2008, 2009), Straus and Lyons (2006), Rusesabagina and Zoellner (2006), Gatore (2012), Mukasonga (2008), Nganemariya and Dickinson (2008), Rurangwa (2009) and Totten and Ubaldo (2011); for a discussion of theatre in the post-genocide context, see Kalisa (2006). For academic discussion of creative writing related to the genocide, see, Cezanave (2004), Semujanga (2006, 2007, 2009), Dauge-Roth (2009), Hitchcott (2009, 2013, 2015) and Norridge (2009, 2011, 2014, 2015).

Henceforth, I will use the term ‘genocide film’ to refer to any filmic text, documentary and fiction that is related to the genocide in Rwanda or its aftermath.

The film followed a 2004 documentary Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire. Both are based on Dallaire’s memoir (2004) but shouldn’t be confused.

All of the lists of genocide films included in this chapter are indicative of the main texts rather than exhaustive compilations of the existing body of material.

This subgenre includes films such as The Constant Gardener (2005), Blood Diamond (2006), The Last King of Scotland (2006), Machine Gun Preacher (2011) and Beasts of No Nation (2015).

See Cieplak (2010b) on the portrayal of genocidal violence and ‘fear’ in Shooting Dogs and 100 Days.

Criticism of Rusesabagina should be considered cautiously; at the time of writing (2016) he’s a divisive figure in Rwanda and very much out of favour with the Rwandan government.

The film, broadcast on the BBC, used the widely challenged work of Allan Stam and Christian Davenport to question the accepted number of Tutsis who died in the genocide and suggest that the number of deaths at the hands of the RPF exceeded the genocide’s death toll—effectively promoting the theory of a ‘double genocide’ (often employed by genocide deniers). For a discussion of the film see Wallis (2014).

These films include: Shake Hands with the Devil: The Journey of Roméo Dallaire; Iseta: Behind the Roadblock; Kigali, des images contre un massacre,; Journey Into Darkness; A Culture of Murder; Valentina’s Nightmare and Rwanda: Hope in Hell.

These include: When Good Men Do Nothing (1998), Chronicle of a Genocide Foretold (1996), Rwanda: The Genocide Fax (2001) and Ghosts of Rwanda (2004).

These include: The Bloody Tricolour, La France au Rwanda (1999), Tuez-les tous! Rwanda: Histoire d’un génocide ‘sans importance’ (2004).

These films include: My Neighbor My Killer; In Rwanda We Say…The Family That Does Not Speak Dies; Gacaca, Living Together Again in Rwanda?; Rwanda, récit d’un survivant (2001); Rwanda: Living Forgiveness (2004); A Killer’s Homecoming (2004); True Stories: Men in Pink (2004); The Keepers of Memory; The Diary of Immaculée (2006); Icyizere: Hope (2008); As We Forgive (2008); Rwanda: Beyond the Deadly Pit (2008); In the Tall Grass: Inside Gacaca (2006); Mothers Courage, Thriving Survivors (2005); Rwanda: Do Scars Ever Fade? (2004) and Rwanda Through Us, Humanity (2006).

For the heated debate that followed the advent of digital technology, see Krauss (1999) and Lister (2005).

See Halbwachs (1980).

Critics such as Brian Winston have warned that the advances and dominance of digital technology, and the scope for image manipulation it offers, could have ‘a profound and perhaps fatal impact on the documentary film’. Such warnings, referring specifically to the issue of the ‘relationship between image and reality’ (Winston, 1995: 6) have been challenged by scholars such as Stella Bruzzi who sees it as ‘a case of throwing the baby out with the bath water’ and part of a much wider (and much more prolonged) debate in documentary theory about the aspiration for documentary to be ‘decontaminated of its representational quality’ (Bruzzi 2006: 4). This important debate, while duly acknowledged, is outside the remit of my enquiry.

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100 Days (Nick Hughes, 2001, Rwanda/UK).

As We Forgive (Laura Waters Hinson, 2008, USA).

A Culture of Murder (BBC Panorama, 1994, UK).

A Killer’s Homecoming (D. Volker, UK, 2004).

Beasts of No Nation (Cary Joji Fukunaga, 2015, USA).

Blood Diamond (Edward Zwick, 2006, USA/Germany).

Chronicle of a Genocide Foretold (Daniele Lacourse and Yvan Patry, 1996, Canada).

Gacaca, Living Together Again in Rwanda? (Anne Aghion, 2002, France).

Ghosts of Rwanda (Greg Barker and Darren Kemp, 2004, USA).

Hotel Rwanda (Terry George, 2004, UK/USA/Italy/South Africa).

Icyizere: Hope (Patrick Mureithi, 2008, USA).

In Rwanda We Say … The Family That Does Not Speak Dies (Anne Aghion, 2004, France).

In the Tall Grass: Inside Gacaca (John Coll Metcalfe, 2006, USA).

Iseta: Behind the Roadblock (Juan Reina, 2008, Rwanda/Kenya).

Journey into Darkness (BBC Panorama, 1994, UK).

Justice Seekers (Antonio Ribeiro, 2014, UK).

The Keepers of Memory (Eric Kabera, 2004, Rwanda).

Kigali, des images contre un massacre (Jean-Christophe Klotz, 2006, France).

Kinyarwanda (Alrick Brown, 2011 France/USA).

La France au Rwanda (Robert Genoud, 1999, France).

Lignes de Front (Jean-Christophe, Klotz, 2009).

Mothers Courage, Thriving Survivors (Leo Kalinda, Canada, 2005).

Munyurangabo (Lee Isaac Chung, 2007, Rwanda/USA).

My Neighbor My Killer (Anne Aghion, 2009, France).

Opération Turquoise (Alain Tasma, 2007, France).

Rwanda: Beyond the Deadly Pit (Gilbert Ndahayo, 2008, Rwanda).

Rwanda – Do Scars Ever Fade? (Paul Freedman, USA, 2004).

Rwanda: Hope in Hell (BBC Comic Relief, 2001 UK).

Rwanda: Living Forgiveness (Ralph Springhorn, Switzerland, 2004).

Rwanda, récit d’un survivant (Robert Genoud, 2001, France).

Rwanda’s Untold Story (John Conroy, 2014, UK).

Rwanda: The Genocide Fax (Brad Clark, 2001, Canada).

Rwanda Through Us, Humanity (Marie-France Collard, 2006, Belgium/Rwanda).

Shake Hands with the Devil (Roger Spotiswoode, 2007, Canada).

Shooting Dogs (Michael Caton-Jones, 2005, UK/Germany).

Sometimes in April (Raoul Peck, 2005, USA).

The Bloody Tricolour (BBC Panorama, 1995, UK).

The Constant Gardener (Fernando Meirelles, 2005, UK/Germany).

The Last King of Scotland (Kevin Macdonald 2006, USA/UK).

Tuez-les tous ! Rwanda: Histoire d’un génocide ‘sans importance’ (Raphaël Glucksmann, David Hazan and Pierre Mezerette, France, 2004).

Un dimanche à Kigali (Robert Favreau, 2006, Canada).

When Good Men Do Nothing (BBC Panorama, 1998, UK).

Valentina’s Nightmare: A Journey Into the Rwandan Genocide (BBC Panorama, 1997, UK).

Machine Gun Preacher (Mark Forster, 2011, USA).

Titel: Chapter 1: Image, Evidence, Memory
verfasst von: Piotr Cieplak
Verlag: Palgrave Macmillan UK
Buch: Death, Image, Memory
Print ISBN: 978-1-137-57987-4

Electronic ISBN: 978-1-137-57988-1

Copyright-Jahr: 2017
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-57988-1_2