Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Save Borobudur! The Moral Dynamics of Heritage Formation in Indonesia across Orders and Borders, 1930s–1980s

  • Chapter
Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission

Abstract

This article focuses on the continuities and discontinuities in the conservation history of the eighth-century Buddhist temple Borobudur in Central Java, Indonesia, particularly in relation to processes of state legitimation, inclusion, and exclusion. It aims to understand how, why, and for whom this temple—which was officially listed as a World Heritage Site in 1991—transformed into heritage throughout regime changes in colonial and post-colonial times. In reaction to what seems to be a state-centred bias in the study of heritage formation, we will demonstrate how the theory of “the gift,” as discussed in the classic work by Marcel Mauss, can be a useful tool to investigate heritage dynamics beyond the perspective of state civilizing missions, state supported heritage agencies, and so-called authorized heritage discourses. We will also seek to understand the moral and material engagements with the temple from perspectives that are not exclusively related to state interests, and which come from within and across the borders of empires and post-colonial states.

Borobudur is in great danger! Borobudur must be saved! This heart breaking cry reverberates in every corner of the world

(Soekmono on May 31, 1968, in: Soekmono 1969)

Let Buddha be my refuge

(Tagore 1927)

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 139.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    UNESCO Archives, Paris (hereafter UNESCO), CLT/CH/78: Speech Soeharto, Borobudur, February 23, 1983.

  2. 2.

    See Pemugaran 1983 about the information on the offering of the karbauw, as told to MB by Henri Chambert-Loir (Jakarta, February 1, 2011) who heard this from the French architect Jacques Dumarçay. As technical advisor in the “Save Borobudur” Campaign, Dumarçay attended the inauguration.

  3. 3.

    UNESCO, CLT/CH/78: Speech Soeharto, Borobudur, February 23, 1983.

  4. 4.

    UNESCO, CLT/CH/78: Speech Amadou-Mahttar M’Bow, Borobudur, February 23, 1983; Brochure of the ceremony: Acara Peresmian Berakhirnya Pemugaran Candi Borobudur, February 23, 1983.

  5. 5.

    PT, the Indonesian acronym for Perseroan Terbatas, is the standard use for Limited Liability Company in Indonesia. Taman Wisata means Tourist Park.

  6. 6.

    For the history of the Buddhist revival in modern Indonesia see Ishii (1984) and Brown (2004). On the first, Waisek at Borobudur, see Brown (2004, 47) and Ramstedt (2011, 525). On the history of the Theosophical Society in Indonesia see Tollenaere (1996).

  7. 7.

    The first Waisek after the coup of 1965 was held in 1967. There was at least one Waisek celebration at Mendut in 1979. Waisek was held again, one time, at Borobudur in 1980 (Upacara 1984; Sekilas 1984; Di sana 1985).

  8. 8.

    UNESCO, CLT/CH/ 81: Borobudur––comité exécutif, Eiji Hattori, OPI/ACP to ADG/PRS via Deputy director OPI, May 18, 1982.

  9. 9.

    Ledakan (1985). For a picture overview of Waisek at Borobudur since 1953, the first post-independence Indonesian Waisek see Upacara (1984).

  10. 10.

    “Ledakan Malam di Borobudur,” Tempo, January 26, 1985.

  11. 11.

    UNESCO, CLT/CH/79.2. This file contains the international reactions (official and in the press), as well as UNESCO Press review, January 25, 1985. As a continuation of the normalizing policy of the New Order government, the museum Karmawibhangga at the Borobudur site, which was built in the 1980s, has a small display on heritage and destruction (caused by natural and man-made disasters), in which the bomb attack plays a tiny role and is portrayed as a completely neutralized, external attack.

  12. 12.

    See also the UNESCO monthly newsletter Orient-Occident, published since 1958, informing its readers on “UNESCO’s Major project on Mutual Appreciation of Eastern and Western Cultural Values.” On the post-war developmental aims behind UNESCO’s cultural programmes in the 1950s see Rehling (2011, 3–5).

  13. 13.

    For the continuities of UNESCO’s humanitarian ideals of the unity of humankind with nineteenth-century evolutionary thinking see Sluga (2010).

  14. 14.

    More specifically, for the role of Greater India thinking in Indian-Indonesian encounters, see Ramstedt (2011).

  15. 15.

    This line of inter-Asian cultural knowledge production and conservation practices needs further investigation. For some historiographic inventories see Casparis (1954), Basa (1998), Ali (2009). For case studies see Clémentin-Ohja and Manguin (2007), Jory (2002), Peleggi (2004), Ramstedt (2011), Bloembergen and Eickhoff (2011, 2013b).

  16. 16.

    On Chulalongkorn’s visit to Borobudur, the exchanges taking place at the site, and the impact on Siam/Thailand (see Bloembergen and Eickhoff 2013b); on Narada’s visit (see Brown 2004, 49–51).

  17. 17.

    For Tagore’s visit to Borobudur also see Ramstedt (2011).

  18. 18.

    KITLV, H 1214, Travel letter by Tagore, November 17, 1927. Tagore’s letters were translated into Dutch by one of Tagore’s travel companions in Java and Bali, the Dutch Sanskritist and musicologist A.A. Bake, and published in the (Dutch lingual and colonial) Javanese cultural journal Oedaya in 1927.

  19. 19.

    Final verses of Tagore’s poem, “Boro-Budur,” see Tagore (2007), also quoted (in full) in a curious biography of van Stein Callenfels, see Swanenburg (1951, 167–169).

  20. 20.

    Also see KITLV, H 1214, Travel letter by Tagore, November 17, 1927.

  21. 21.

    For more details on the moral motives and the institutionalization of archaeology and conservation politics in the Dutch East Indies see Bloembergen 2006, chapter 4; Bloembergen and Eickhoff 2011.

  22. 22.

    Anom 2005, 54, argues that the mission’s report never reached the Indonesian authorities and that the documents were lost in the renewed armed conflict: only three months after this Indian mission was completed the Dutch army invaded Yogyakarta. However, the library of the India-oriented Kern Institute in Leiden has a copy of the report of the mission (typoscript) that was submitted to the Indian government in 1950 (Srinivasan 1950).

  23. 23.

    The paragraphs on these Indian archaeological missions to Borobudur are derived from Bloembergen and Eickhoff 2011, 428–9. For the influence of “Greater India” thinking on Nehru’s post-independence pan-Asian ideals see Bayly 2004, 729 and 735–40. For “Greater Indian” archaeological interest in the Dutch East-Indies see Casparis 1954, Basa 1998, Ramstedt 2011.

  24. 24.

    For the Gabungan Sam Kauw Indonesia see Ishii 1984, 111, Sekilas 1984, Brown 2004, 49–50.

  25. 25.

    Archive Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala (BP3) Yogyakarta Istimewa, Indonesia, Laporan Tiga Bulanan, Seksi Bangunan Dinas Purbakala di Prambanan, Triwulan Ke II, 3–4 [Typoscript].

  26. 26.

    See Soekmono 1969, 2, Anom 2005, 56. The lines are from Chairil Anwar’s nationalist poem “Aku” (‘I’, 1943), written during the revolutionary struggle for independence, “Aku mau hidup seribu tahun lagi” (I want to live another thousand years).

  27. 27.

    For the technical details see Anom 2005, 57–8. We aim to further investigate what exactly happened at the site of Borobudur during this time. Rumour has it that this early endeavour of conserving the temple was troubled more by illegal sales and financial mismanagement than by political upheaval. KITLV, Archive Van Romondt, inv. nr. 27, (Roger) Yong Djiet Tann to Van Erp junior, March 5, 1969.

  28. 28.

    The metaphor of “the heart transplantation” is from A.J. Bernet Kempers, in UNESCO, CLT/CH/80, Campagne de Borobudur–––exposition––ceremonie de cloture, 1976–1984, Bernet Kempers to Yudhishthir Raj Isar, Division of Cultural heritage of UNESCO, March 20, 1977. Working for the Dutch East Indies colonial Archaeological Service in the 1930s, Bernet Kempers had become its director after the Japanese Occupation (1947–1949) and subsequently became the first director of the Indonesian Dinas Purbakala (1950–1953). He remained an authority on Indonesian archaeology and conservation politics in Java and Bali, and was deeply engaged with Borobudur’s fate.

  29. 29.

    Figures here are based on Vickers 2005, 156–60. The events surrounding the coup and the mass killings have for a long time been one of the mysteries of modern Indonesian history, and continue in post- New Order, reforming and democratizing Indonesia, to be a matter of dispute. For summaries of various interpretations and problems see Cribb 2002, 2009 and Roosa 2006.

  30. 30.

    UNESCO, X07.21 (910), Relations with Indonesia, Official. Report on “Indonesia,” May 24, 1968, by P.C. Terento (UNESCO’s director of the Bureau of the Member states) to the director general of UNESCO (René Maheu) in Paris.

  31. 31.

    UNESCO, Sessions of the General Conference 1968, 15 C/DR 66, 30.7.1968.

  32. 32.

    Figures, rounded off, are based on Labrousse 1974, 210. They reveal the state of funding in August 1973. At the beginning of 1971 a budget was assessed for the whole operation of 5.5 million US dollars, of which 2 million US dollars should have been raised on or before December 31, 1972, as a precondition to begin the operation in 1973. But after further investigations into the state of the monument, the budget that was estimated to be necessary almost doubled at a price of 7.7 million US dollars. In the end, the restoration cost, apart from the working hours of 600 men over a period of more than ten years, was almost 7 million US dollars.

  33. 33.

    For the complete state of donations by the end of the campaign see UNESCO CLT/CH 77, Chief accountant to N.S. Naqvi, May 22, 1981, Appendix III. “Trust funds for the safeguarding of the temple of Borobudur. Statement of contributions pledged and received and other income to 30 April 1981.”

  34. 34.

    Moreover, since 2008 the Netherlands has once again been engaged in the preservation of Borobudur in a “Fit-in-Trust,” a technical collaboration project between Indonesia and the Netherlands that is coordinated by the World Heritage Centre of UNESCO, accessed January 9. 2011. http://whr.unesco.og/en/news/463.

  35. 35.

    UNESCO, CLT/CH/29, “Press dossier prepared by the division of cultural Heritage, December 1982.”

  36. 36.

    Although interviews thus far have not revealed the link, it may be that EFEO/UNESCO conservation projects in Cambodia can provide an example for the creation of a zoning system around heritage sites that includes the expropriation of the land around the site. We found a copy of an internal UNESCO report (Hansen 1969) in the library of the Archaeological Conservation Centre at Borobudur. This report on water management structures and conservation plans for Phnom Kulen also discussed plans for a park around the temple; it suggested involving local residents in the development of these plans in order to make them more supportive and more inclined to move from their land to make way for a national heritage park.

  37. 37.

    Which were formalized in 1982 by the Indonesian government and its Japanese partner, with the earmarking of 150,000 US dollars to be used in the future maintenance of Borobudur and (among others) its natural surroundings.

  38. 38.

    Interviews with Jack Prayono, Borobudur, January 26 and 30, 2011; Atmojo and Rini, Seganan (nearby Borobudur), January 27, 2011; pak Tomo, Ngaran, May 12, 2012. See Ariswara 1992, Larissa 1995.

  39. 39.

    UNESCO, BRX/AFE/10 (Indonesia/Borobudur, 1972–1983), Eiji Hattori (Japanese philosopher and staff member of UNESCO) to Thet Tun, December 30, 1982.

  40. 40.

    For a rather positive evaluation of the local versus global profits in heritage politics at Borobudur see Black and Wall 2001, 128–9.

  41. 41.

    This is a summary of three criteria (i, ii, and iv) by which Borobudur was enlisted as World Heritage Site in 1991. Accessed January 9, 2011. http://whc.unesco.org/en/criteria.

References

  • Ali, Daud. 2009. “Connected Histories? Regional Historiography and Theories of Cultural Contact between Early South and Southeast Asia.” In Islamic connections: Muslim Societies in South and Southeast Asia, edited by R. Michael Feener and Terenjit Sevea, 1–24. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anom, I.G.N. 2005. The Restoration of Borobudur. Paris: UNESCO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ariswara. 1992. Temples of Java. Jakarta: Intermasa. Published in 3 languages: English, French and Japanese.

    Google Scholar 

  • Basa, Kishor K. 1998. “Indian Writings on Early History and Archaeology of Southeast Asia: A Historiographical Analysis.” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 8–3: 398–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bayly, Susan. 2004. “Imagining ‘Greater India’: French and Indian Visions of Colonialism in the Indic Mode.” Modern Asian Studies 38,3: 703–744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black, Heather, and Geoffry Wall. 2001. “Global-local Relationships in UNESCO World Heritage Sites.” In Interconnected Worlds: Tourism in Southeast Asia, edited by T.C. Chang and K.C. Ho, 121–36. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bloembergen, Marieke. 2006. Colonial Spectacles; The Netherlands and The Netherlands and the Netherlands-Indies at the World Exhibitions, 1880–1931. Singapore: Singapore University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bloembergen, Marieke, and Martijn Eickhoff. 2011. “Conserving the Past, Mobilizing the Indonesian Future Archaeological Sites, Regime Change and Heritage Politics in Indonesia in the 1950s.” BKI/Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia and Oceania 167: 405–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 2013a. “A Wind of Change on Java’s Ruined Temples: Archaeological Activities, Imperial Circuits and Heritage Awareness in Java and the Netherlands (1800–1850).” BMGN/Low Countries Historical Review 128–1: 81–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 2013b. “Exchange and the Protection of Java’s Antiquities. A Transnational Approach to the Problem of Heritage in Colonial Java.” Journal of Asian Studies 72,4: 893–916.

    Google Scholar 

  • Borobudur. 1956. “Borobudur—‘The Terraced Mountain. Java’s Monument to Buddhism.” The UNESCO Courier IX,6: 43–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brata, Hangga, and Arientha Primanita. 2011. “Actor Richard Gere drawn by Karma to Borobudur, Planning Temple Movie.” JakartaGlobe, June 27, 2011. Accessed January 13, 2012. http://www.thejakartaglobe.com/indonesia/actor-richard-gere-drawn-by-karma-to-borobudur-planning-temple-movie/449282.

  • Brown, Iem. 2004. “Buddhist Revival in Modern Indonesia.” In Hinduism in Modern Indonesia. A Minority Religion between Local, National, and Global Interests, edited by Martin Ramstedt, 45–55. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Casparis, J.G. de. 1954. “Twintig jaar studie van de oudere geschiedenis van Indonesië: 1931–1951.” Oriëntatie; Cultureel Maandblad 46: 626–64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chakrabarty, Dipesh, ed. 2000. “Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History.” In Provincializing Europe. Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference, 27–46. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clémentine-Ojha, Catherine, and Pierre-Yves Manguin. 2007. A Century in Asia. The History of the École Française d’Extrême Orient 1898–2006. Singapore: Editions Didier Millet.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coedès, George. 1948. Les états hindouisés d’Indochine et d’Indonésie. Paris: de Boccard.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cribb, Robert. 2002. “Unresolved Problems in the Indonesian Killings of 1965–1966.” Asian Survey 42,4: 550–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ——. 2009. “The Indonesian Massacres.” In Century of Genocide. Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, edited by Samuel Totten and William S. Parsons, 235–62. New York, London: Routledge. Originally published in 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daifuku, Hiroshi. 1968. “Saving our Heritage in Stone: a World-Wide Challenge.” UNESCO Courier June: 4–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Das Gupta, Arun. 2002. “Rabindranath Tagore in Indonesian Experience in Bridge-Building.” BKI/Journal of the Humanities and Social Sciences of Southeast Asia and Oceania 158: 451–77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dari. 1983. “Dari Dukuh yang harus ditinggalkan.” Tempo, February 26, 1983.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dewi, Sita W. 2012. “Angkor Wat, Borobudur Temple to become Sister Sites, says Official.” The Jakarta Post, January 12, 2012. Accessed January 13, 2012. http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/01/12/angkor-wat-borobudur-temple-become-sister-sites-says-official.html.

  • Di sana. 1985. “Di sana tidak ada lagi Waisyak.” Tempo, February 2, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Editorial. 1956. The UNESCO Courier, IX,6: 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fradier, Georges. 1959. East & West; Towards Mutual Understanding? Paris: UNESCO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groslier, Bernard Philippe. 1968. “Borobudur; Is the great Javanese Sanctuary doomed?” UNESCO Courier June: 23–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, Erik. 1969. Cambodge amenagement du Phnom Kulen. Paris: UNESCO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ishii, Yoneo. 1984. “Modern Buddhism in Indonesia.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Hammalava Saddhatissa, edited by Gatare Dhammapala, Richard Gombrich and K.R. Norman, 108–14. Nugegoda: University of Sri Jayewardenepura.

    Google Scholar 

  • Japan International Cooperation Agency. 1975. The National Archaeological Parks Development Project; Borobudur & Prambanan: Interim report. Tokyo: JICA.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 1979. Borobudur & Prambanan: Final Report. Tokyo: JICA

    Google Scholar 

  • Jory, Patrick. 2002. “Thai and Western Scholarship in the Age of Colonialism: King Chulalongkorn redefines the Jatakas.” Journal of Asian Studies 61,31: 891–918.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krom, N.J. 1923. Inleiding tot de Hindoe-Javaansche Kunst I. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Labrousse, Pierre. 1974. “Publications sur la restauration de Borobudur.” Archipel 8: 207–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larissa. 1995. The magnificence of Borobudur. Jakarta: PT Gramedia Pustaka Utama. Published in 3 languages: English, French and Japanese.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ledakan. 1985. “Ledakan Malam di Borobudur.” Tempo, January 26, 1985.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mauss, Marcell. 1954. The Gift. Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. London: Cohen & West Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miksic, John. 1990. Borobudur. Golden Tales of the Buddhas. Singapore: Periplus Editions Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peleggi, Maurizio. 2004. “Royal Antiquarianism, European Orientalism and the Production of Archaeological Knowledge.” In Asia in Europe, Europe in Asia, edited by Srilava Rati, Mario Rutten, and Beng-Lan Goh, 133–61. Singapore: ISEAS.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pemugaran. 1983. “Pemugaran bukan pekerjaan mewah.” Kedaulatan Rakyat, February 24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramstedt 2011. “Colonial Encounters between India and Indonesia”, South Asian History and Culture, 2:4: 522–39.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rehling, Andrea. 2011. “Universalismen und Partikularismen im Wiederstreit: Zur Genese des UNESCO-Welterbes.” Zeithistorische Forschungen/Studies in Contemporary History 8,3, online edition. Accessed December 19, 2011. http://www.zeithistorische-forschungen.de/16126041-Rehling-3-2011.

  • Roosa, John. 2006. Pretext for Mass Murder; The September 30th Movement and Suharto’s coup d’état in Indonesia. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sekilas. 1984. “Sekilas tentang perwalian umat Buddha Indonesia (Walubi).” Waisak 2528, 31–3. Jakarta: Yayasan Maha Bodhi Indonesia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silva Vigier, Anil da. 1956. “Across the Face of Asia.” The UNESCO Courier IX,6: 10–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sinor, Denis, ed. 1971. Proceedings of the twenty-seventh International Congress of Orientalists, 13th–19th August 1967. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sivaramamurti, S. 1961. Le stupa du Barabadur. Paris: Presses universitaires de France.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sluga, Glenda. 2010. “UNESCO and the (one) World of Julian Huxley.” Journal of World History 21,3: 393–418.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, Laurajane. 2006. Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Soekmono, R. 1969. “New Light on some Borobudur Problems. Paper presented to the XXVII International Congress of Orientalism, Ann Arbor, August 1967.” Bulletin of the Archaeological Institute of the Republic of Indonesia/Berita Lembaga Purbakala dan Peninggalan Nasional 5,69: 1-10.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 1986. “Archaeologie zoals die beoefend wordt in Indonesië.” Inaugural Lecture, Leiden University, November 28, 1986.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 1990. “Langkah pemerintah tahun 1948 dalam bidang kepurbakalaan: Landasan untuk pengembangan arkeologi Indonesia.” Departure Speech, University of Indonesia, March 5, 1990.

    Google Scholar 

  • ——. 2001. “Serat Centhini and the Rejected Buddha from the Main Stupa of Borobudur.” In Fruits of Inspiration: Studies in Honour of Prof. J.G. de Casparis, edited by M.J. Klokke and K.R. van Kooij, 474–85. Groningen: Forsten.

    Google Scholar 

  • Srinivasan, K.R. 1950. Barabudur. A Report on its Conditions in 1949. In Two Parts. Submitted to Government of India—Ministery of Education. Typoscript.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanenburg, B.D. 1951. Iwan de verschrikkelijke. Leven en werken van Dr. O.V. van Stein Callenfels. Maastricht: N.V. Leiter Nypels.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tagore, Rabindranath. 2007. “Boro-Budur.” In English Writings of Tagore, vol 2. (Poems), 314–5. New Delhi: Atlantic. Originally written in 1927.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tollenaere, Herman A.O. E. de. 1996. “The Politics of Divine Wisdom; Theosophy and Labour, National, and Women’s Movements in Indonesia and South Asia 1875–1947.” PhD diss., University of Nijmegen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Upacara. 1984. “Upacara Suci Waisak sebelum tahun 1967.” In Waisak 2528, 68–71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vickers, Adrian. 2005. A History of Modern Indonesia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Royal Netherlands Institute of Southeast Asian and Caribbean Studies (KITLV), Leiden, Netherlands

    Marieke Bloembergen

  2. NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Amsterdam, Netherlands

    Martijn Eickhoff

Authors
  1. Marieke Bloembergen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Martijn Eickhoff
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Marieke Bloembergen .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Karl Jaspers Centre, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany

    Michael Falser

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer International Publishing Switzerland

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Bloembergen, M., Eickhoff, M. (2015). Save Borobudur! The Moral Dynamics of Heritage Formation in Indonesia across Orders and Borders, 1930s–1980s. In: Falser, M. (eds) Cultural Heritage as Civilizing Mission. Transcultural Research – Heidelberg Studies on Asia and Europe in a Global Context. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13638-7_5

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation