Abstract
As water shortage in the dry areas is a recurrent crisis, people have a great need for information on how to capture and use every available drop of water efficiently. Water harvesting is an effective and economical means of achieving this objective and information on its various systems and techniques is in great demand. Water harvesting has been practiced successfully for millennia in parts of the world – and some recent interventions have also had significant local impact. Yet water harvesting’s potential remains largely unknown, unacknowledged and unappreciated. Water harvesting offers under-exploited opportunities for the predominantly rainfed farming systems of the drylands in the developing world. It works best in precisely those areas where rural poverty is worst. When practiced well, its impact is to simultaneously reduce hunger and alleviate poverty, as well as to improve the resilience of the environment. Rainfall is the most important natural resource in drier environments. Low rainfall, water scarcity and land degradation severely inhibit the production capacities of agricultural lands in arid and semiarid environments. Improving the efficiency of rainwater use is, therefore, extremely critical in these water-scarce areas with rapidly expanding, poor populations living in a fragile environment and facing food insecurity and depleted natural resources bases. Water harvesting is increasingly important for improving the management of water resources in such dry environments. This chapter deals with the methods and techniques of water harvesting to make more water available to humans, animals and for irrigation purposes, in places where rainwater is the only source of water. Details are provided on the main factors for selection of reliable water harvesting technique that is sustainable under local circumstances, including physical (hydrologic, terrain, and technical), cultural acceptability and socioeconomic (institutional and economic) factors. The aim is to compile a synthesis of experiences that can provide insight into rainwater harvesting opportunities which address human wellbeing while continuing to sustain a range of ecosystem services.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Abu-Awwad AM, Shatanawi MR (1997) Water harvesting and infiltration in arid areas affected by surface crust: examples from Jordan. J Arid Environ 37:443–452
Abu-Zreig M, Tamimi A (2011) Field evaluation of sand ditch water harvesting technique in Jordan. Agric Water Manag 98:1291–1296
ADB (2011) Water Operational Plan 2011–2020. Asian Development Bank, Mundaluyong City
Adgo E, Teshome A, Mati B (2013) Impacts of long-term soil and water conservation on agricultural productivity: the case of Anjenie watershed, Ethiopia. Agric Water Manag 117:55–61
Aftab TB, Hasnain SA, Iqbal SR (2012) Save water and safe water: evaluation of design and storage period on water quality of rainwater harvesting system. J Environ Earth Sci 2:106–111
Al Ali Y, Touma J, Zante P, Nasri S, Albergel J (2008) Water and sediment balances of a contour bench terracing system in a semi-arid cultivated zone (El Gouazine, central Tunisia). Hydrol Sci J 53(4):883–892
Alem G (2003) Water harvesting: a water security strategy for mitigating the impact of drought in Ethiopia. Water Security in the 21st century, pp 1–5
Ali A, Yazar A, Abdul Aal A, Oweis T, Hayek P (2010) Micro-catchment water harvesting potential of an arid environment. Agric Water Manag 98:96–104
Al-Seekh AH, Mohammad AG (2009) The effect of water harvesting techniques on runoff, sedimentation, and soil properties. Environ Manag 44:37–45
Anschuetz J, Kome A, Nederlof M, de Neef R, van de Ven T (2003) Water harvesting and soil moisture retention. Agrodok 13, Wageningen: Agromisa Foundation. Available: agromisa. zenopx. Nl
AQUASTAT (2009) AQUASTAT online. FAO, Rome http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/dbase/index.stm
Barron J, Okwach G (2005) Run-off water harvesting for dry spell mitigation in maize (Zea mays L.): Results from on-farm research in semi-arid Kenya. Agric Water Manag 74:1–21
Bewket W (2007) Soil and water conservation intervention with conventional technologies in northwestern highlands of Ethiopia: acceptance and adoption by farmers. Land Use Policy 24:404–416
Biazin B, Sterk G, Temesgen M, Abdulkedira A, Stroosnijder L (2012) Rainwater harvesting and management in rainfed agricultural systems in sub-Saharan Africa, a review. Phys Chem Earth 47–48:139–151
Boers Th M, Ben-Asher J (1982) A review of rainwater harvesting. Agric Water Manag 5:145–158
Bruins HJ, Evenarl M, Nessler U (1986) Rainwater-harvesting agriculture for food production in arid zones: the challenge of the African famine. Appl Geogr 6:13–32
CA (Comprehensive Assessment of Water Management in Agriculture) (2007) In: Molden D (ed) Water for food, water for life. A Comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. International Water Management Institute (IWMI). Earthscan, London
Carter DC, Miller S (1991) Three years’ experience with an on-farm macrocatchment water harvesting system in Botswana. Agric Water Manag 19:191–203
Concepcion RN, Contreras SM, Sanidad WB, Gesite AB, Nilo GP, Salandanan KA, Manalang KM, de Vera SV (2006) Enhancing multi-functionality of agriculture through rainwater harvesting system. Paddy Water Environ 4:235–243
Conway G (1997) The doubly green revolution. Food for all in the twenty-first century. Penguin Books, London, p 334
Critchley W, Siegert K, Chapman C, Finkel M (1991) Water harvesting. A manual for the design and construction of water harvesting schemes for plant production. FAO report 9210403. FAO, Rome, 133 p
Critchley W, Reij C, Seznec A (1992) Water harvesting for plant production. Volume II: case studies and conclusions for Sub-Saharan Africa’. World Bank technical paper number 157, Africa Technical Department series, Washington, DC
De Fries R, Rosenzweig C (2010) Toward a whole-landscape approach for sustainable land use in the tropics. PNAS 107(46):19627–19632
Denison JA, Wotshela L (2012) An overview of ındigenous, indigenised and contemporary water harvesting and conservation practices in South Africa. Irrig Drain 61(Suppl 2):7–23
Fairbourn ML (1975) Field evaluation of microwatershed and vertical mulch systems. In: Proceedings of the water harvesting symposium. U.S. Department of Agriculture ARS W-22
Falkenmark M, Fox P, Persson G, Rockström J (2001) Water harvesting for upgrading of rainfed agriculture: problem analysis and research needs. Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI) Report 11, Stockholm
FAOSTAT (2012) Database. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), Rome. http://faostat.fao.org/. Accessed June 2012
Fleskens L, Stroosnijder L, Ouessar M, Graaff JD (2005) Evaluation of the on-site impact of water harvesting in southern Tunisia. J Arid Environ 62:613–630
Foster V, Briceño-Garmendia C (eds) (2010) Africa’s infrastructure: a time for transformation. World Bank, Washington, DC
Fox P, Rockström J (2000) Water-harvesting for supplementary irrigation of cereal crops to overcome intra-seasonal dry-spells in the Sahel. Phys Chem Earth (B) 25(3):289–296
Fox P, Rockström J, Barron J (2005) Risk analysis and economic viability of water harvesting for supplemental irrigation in semi-arid Burkina Faso and Kenya. Agric Syst 83(3):231–250
Frasier GW (1975) Water harvesting for livestock, wildlife and domestic use. In: Proceedings of the water harvesting symposium. Phoenix, Arizona. U.S. Department of Agriculture ARS W-22
Frasier GW (1980) Harvesting water for agricultural, wildlife and domestic uses. J Soil Water Conserv 5(3):125–128
Frasier GW (1984) Water harvesting, including new techniques of maximizing rainfall use in semi arid areas. In: Davis TJ (ed) Proceedings of the fourth agricultural Sector Symposium. World Bank, Washington, DC
Frasier GW (1988) Technical, economic and social consideration of water harvesting and runoff farming. In: Arid Lands, Today and Tomorrow. Proceedings of an international research and development conference. Westview Press, Boulder, Colorado
Gansu Bureau of Water Resources (1995) Introduction to the experiment and extension on rainwater utilization in Gansu. In: Proceedings of the 1st China National Conference on Rainwater Utilization, Lanzhou, 1996. (in Chinese) reported in Zhu Qiang, Li Yuanhong, Rainwater Harvesting in the Loess Plateau of Gansu, China and Its Significance, Gansu Research Institute for Water Conservancy. Lanzhou 730000, China www.cpatsa.embrapa.br/catalogo/doc/wordwide/2_3_Zhu_Qiang.doc. Accessed 22 Aug 2015
Glendenning CJ, Vervoort RW (2010) Hydrological impacts of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in a case study catchment: the Arvari River, Rajasthan, India. Part 1: field-scale impacts. Agric Water Manag 98:331–342
Glendenning CJ, Vervoort RW (2011) Hydrological impacts of rainwater harvesting (RWH) in a case study catchment: the Arvari River, Rajasthan, India. Part 2: catchment-scale impacts. Agric Water Manag 98:715–730
Gnadlinger J (2000) Rainwater harvesting in rural areas. 2nd World Water Forum J March 16–22. http://www.irpaa.org.br/colheita/index.htm
GTZ (2010) Small-scale water Entrepreneurs in Nepal http://www.gtz.de/
Hafif B, Murni AM (2012) Small farm reservoir as a supplemental irrigation source for crops planted on marginal land. AGRIVITA J Agricult Sci 34(1):44–49
Hai MT (1998) Water harvesting – an illustrative manual for development of micro catchment techniques for crop production in dry areas. Technical handbook no. 16. Regional Land Management Unit, Swedish International Development Authority: Nairobi, Kenya
Hatibu N, Mahoo H (1999) Rainwater harvesting technologies for agricultural production: a case for Dodoma, Tanzania. In: Kaumbutho PG, Simalenga TE (eds) Conservation tillage with animal traction. A resource book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA). Harare. Zimbabwe, 173 p
Hatibu N, Mutabazi K, Senkondob EM, Msangi ASK (2006) Economics of rainwater harvesting for crop enterprises in semi-arid areas of East Africa. Agric Water Manag 80:74–86
Hobbs P, Sayre K, Gupta R (2008) The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Philos Trans R Soc B 363:543–555
Koohafkan P, Stewart BA (2008) Water and Cereals in Drylands. Earhtscan, London
Krishiworld (2006) Water resources. The Pulse of Indian Agriculture, Krishiworld. http://www.krishiworld.com/html/water_resources1.html
Kummu M, Ward PJ, de Moel H, Varis O (2010) Is physical water scarcity a new phenomenon? Global assessment of water shortage over the last two millennia. Environ Res Lett 5(034006):10 doi:1748-9326/10/034006
Lasage R, Verburg PH (2015) Evaluation of small scale water harvesting techniques for semi-arid environments. J Arid Environ 118:48–57
Lasage R, Aerts JCJH, Mutiso G-CM, de Vries AC (2008) Potential for community-based adaptations to droughts: Sand dams in Kitui Kenya. Phys Chem Earth 33:67–73
Lehmann C, Raquel Tsukada R, Lourete A (2010) Low-cost technologies towards achieving the millennium development goals: the case of rainwater harvesting. International Policy Centre for Inclusive Growth, Research Brief No. 12, Esplanada dos Ministérios, Bloco O, 7° andar 70052-900 Brasilia, DF – Brazil
Li JL (2005) High effective rainwater harvesting technique and benefit evaluation for semiarid area. Agric Res Arid Areas 23:230–232
Li XY, Gong JD (2002) Compacted microcatchments with local earth materials for rainwater harvesting in the semiarid region of China. J Hydrol 257:134–144
Li FR, Cook S, Geballe GT, Burch WR Jr (2000) Rainwater harvesting agriculture: an integrated system for water management on rainfed land in China’s semiarid areas. Ambio 29:447–483
Majdoub R, Khlifi S, Salem AB, M’Sadak Y (2014) Impacts of the Meskat water-harvesting system on soil horizon thickness, organic matter, and canopy volume of olive tree in Tunisia. Desalin Water Treat 52(10–12):2157–2164
Mbilinyi BP, Tumbo SD, Mahoo HF, Senkondo EM, Hatibu N (2005) Indigenous knowledge as decision support tool in rainwater harvesting. Phys Chem Earth 30:792–798
Mekdaschi SR, Liniger H (2013) Water harvesting: guidelines to good practice. Centre for Development and Environment (CDE), Bern; Rainwater Harvesting Implementation Network (RAIN), Amsterdam; MetaMeta, Wageningen; The International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), Rome
Mishra A, Adhikary AK, Panda SN (2009) Optimal size of auxiliary storage reservoir for rainwater harvesting and better crop planning in a minor irrigation project. Water Resour Manag 23:265–288
Missaoui H (1996) Soil and water conservation in Tunisia. In: Pereira LS et al (eds) Sustainability of irrigated agriculture. NATO ASI series, vol 312, pp 121–135
Molden D (2007) Water for food, water for life: comprehensive assessment of water management in agriculture. IWMI, Colombo
Mugabe FT (2004) Evaluation of the benefits of infiltration puts on soil moisture in semi arid Zimbabwe. J Agron 3:188–190
MupangwaW, Love D, Twomlow S (2006) Soil-water conservation and rainwater harvesting strategies in the semi-arid Mzingwane Catchment, Limpopo Basin, Zimbabwe. Phys Chem Earth 31:893–900
Mutekwa V, Kusangaya S (2006) Contribution of rainwater harvesting technologies to rural livelihoods in Zimbabwe: the case of Ngundu ward in Chivi District. Water SA 32(3) July 2006 African Journals Online (AJOL)
National Academy of Sciences (1974) More water for arid lands. Promising Technologies and Research Opportunities, Washington, DC
Ngigi SN (2003) What is the limit of up-scaling rainwater harvesting in a river basin? Phys Chem Earth 28:943–956
Ngigi SN, Savanije HHG, Rockström J, de Vries FWTP (2005) Agrohydrological evaluation of on farm rainwater storage systems for supplemental irrigation in Laikipia district, Kenya. Agric Water Manag 73:21–41
OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) (2012) Infrastructure to 2030: telecom, land, transport, water and electricity. 2006. OECD Publishing, Paris
O’Hogain S, McCarton L, McIntyre N, Pender J, Reid J (2011) Physicochemical and microbiological quality of harvested rainwater from an agricultural installation in Ireland. Water Environ J 26:1–6
Oron G, Ben-Asher J, Issar A, Boers T (1983) Economic evaluation of water harvesting in microcatchments. Water Resour Res 19:1099–1105
Ouessar M, Sghaier M, Mahdhi N, Abdelli F, De Graaff J, Chaieb H, Yahyaoui H, Gabriels D (2004) An integrated approach for impact assessment of water harvesting techniques in dry areas: the case of Oued Oum Zessar watershed (Tunisia). Environ Monit Assess 99:127–140
Oweis T, Hachum A (2006) Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems in West Asia and North Africa. Agric Water Manag 80:57–73
Oweis T, Hachum A (2009) Water harvesting for improved rainfed agriculture in the dry environments. In: Wani SP et al (eds) Rainfed agriculture: unlocking the potential. CAB International, Wallingford, p 164
Oweis T, Taimeh AY (1996) Evaluation of a small basin water-harvesting system in the arid region of Jordan. Water Resour Manag 10:21–34
Oweis T, Hachum A, Kijne J (1999) Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water use efficiency in the dry areas. SWIM Paper 7, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Oweis T, Prinz D, Hachum A (2001) Water harvesting: indigenous knowledge for the future of the drier environments. ICARDA, Aleppo 40 p
Oweis T, Prinz D, Hachum A (2012). Rainwater harvesting for agriculture in the dry areas. CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Leiden, 366 p
Pacey A, Cullis A (1986) Rainwater harvesting: the collection of rainfall and runoff in rural areas. Intermediate Technology Publications, London
Palmback J (2004) Traditional water harvesting. University of Wisconsin – Eau Claire, USA. http://academic.evergreen.edu/g/grossmaz/PALMBAJP/
Pangare G (1992) Traditional water harvesting on way out. Econ Polit Wkly 27:505–507
Pereira LS, Cordery I, Iacovides I (2002) Coping with water scarcity. International Hydrological Programme (IHP)-VI. Technical documents in hydrology no. 58 UNESCO, Paris, 272 p
Pratt RC (1980) Water harvesting: an alternative irrigation method for desert gardeners. Desert Plants 2:131–134
Prinz D (1996). Water Harvesting: Past and Future. In: Pereira LS (ed) Sustainability of irrigated agriculture. In: Proceedings of the NATO advanced research workshop, Vimeiro, 21– 26.03.1994, Balkema, Rotterdam, pp 135–144
Prinz D (2001) Water harvesting for afforestation in dry areas. In: Proceedings of the 10th international conference on rainwater catchment systems, Mannheim, 10–14 September 2001, pp 195–198
Prinz D (2002) The role of water harvesting in alleviating water scarcity in arid areas. Keynote lecture, Proceedings, International conference on water resources management in arid regions, 23–27 March, 2002, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait, vol III, pp 107–122
Prinz D, Singh AK (2000) Technological potential for improvements of Water Harvesting Study for the World Commission on Dams, Cape Town, South Africa. Report: Dams and Development
Qadir M, Sharma BR, Bruggeman A, Choukr-Allah R, Karajeh F (2007) Non-conventional water resources and opportunities for water augmentation to achieve food security in water scarce countries. Agric Water Manag 87:2–22
RAIN Foundation (2014) Increasing access to water: scaling up rain water harvesting practices through microfinance. Barentszplein 7 1013 NJ Amsterdam, the Netherlands. http://wwwrainfoundationorg/wp-content/uploads/2015/05/140307-2-pager-RHW-and-MF_DEFpdf. Accessed 30 July 2015
Rainwater Harvesting (2006) Centre for Science and Environment http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org/methods/methods.htm
Reig C, Mulder P, Begemann L (1988) Water harvesting for plant production. The World Bank, Washington, DC
Renner HF, Frasier G (1995a) Microcatchment water harvesting for agricultural production: Part I: physical and technical considerations. Rangelands 17:72–78
Renner HF, Frasier G (1995b) Microcatchment water harvesting for agricultural production: Part II: Socio-Economic Considerations. Rangelands 17(3):79–82
Rocheteau D, Weber F, and Field-Juma A (1988) Agroforestry in Dryland Africa. International Council for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya
Rockström J (2000) Water resources management in smallholder farms in Eastern and Southern Africa: an overview. Phys Chem Earth Part B Hydrol Oceans Atmos 25(3):279–288
Rockström J (2002) Potential of rainwater harvesting to reduce pressure on freshwater resources international water conference, dialogue on water, food and environment Hanoi, Vietnam, October 14–16, 2002
Rockström J, de Rouw A (1997) Water, nutrients, and slope position in On-farm pearl millet cultivation in the Sahel. Plant Soil 195:311–327
Rockström J, Folke C, Gordon L, Hatibu N, Jewitt G, deVries FP, Rwehumbiza F, Sally H, Savenije H, Schulze R (2004) A watershed approach to upgrade rainfed agriculture in waters scarce regions through Water System Innovations: an integrated research initiative on water for food and rural livelihoods in balance with ecosystem functions. Phys Chem Earth 29:1109–1118
Rockström J, Karlberg L, Wani SP, Barron J, Hatibu N, Oweis T, Bruggeman A, Farahani J, Qiang Z (2010) Managing water in rainfed agricultured the need for a paradigm shift. Agric Water Manag 97:543–550
Rodriguez DJ, van den Berg C, McMahon A (2012) Water papers, investing in water infrastructure: capital, operations and maintenance. The World Bank 1818 H Street NW Washington DC 20433. Paper is also available at http://www.worldbank.org/water
Samra JS (2005) Policy and institutional processes of participatory watershed management in India: Past lessons learnt and future strategies. In: Sharma BR, Samra JS, Scott CA, Wani SP (eds) Watershed Management Challenges: Improving productivity, resources and livelihoods. International Water Management Institute, Colombo, pp. 116–128
Schiettecatte W, Ouessar M, Gabriels D, Tanghe S, Heirman S, Abdelli F (2005) Impact of water harvesting techniques on soil and water conservation: a case study on a micro catchment in Southeastern Tunisia. J Arid Environ 61:297–313
Schwilch G, Hessel R, Verzandvoort S (eds) (2012) Desire for Greener Land. Options for sustainable land management in drylands. University of Bern – CDE, Alterra – Wageningen UR, ISRIC – World Soil Information and CTA – Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation, Bern/Wageningen
Shanan L, Schick AP (1980) A hydrological model for the Negev Desert Highlands: effects of infiltration, runoff, and ancient agriculture. Hydrol Sci Bull 25:269–282
SIWI (2001) Water harvesting for upgrading of rainfed agriculture. Problem analysis and research needs, SIWI report no 11. SIWI, Stockholm, p. 97
Stern PH (1979) Small–scale irrigation. Intermediate Technology Publication, London
Tabor JA (1995) Improving crop yields in the Sahel by means of water harvesting. J Arid Environ 30:83–106
Tauer W, Humborg G (1992) Runoff irrigation in the Sahel zone: remote sensing and geographic information systems for determining potential sites. Verlag Josef Margraf, Weikersheim
Tian Y, Su D, Li F, Li X (2003) Effect of rainwater harvesting with ridge and furrow on yield of potato in semiarid areas. Field Crop Res 84:385–391
Tubeileh A, Bruggeman A, Turkelboom F (2009) Effect of water harvesting on growth of young olive trees in degraded Syrian dryland. Environ Dev Sustain 11:1073–1090
Tumbo SD, Mutabazi KD, Byakugila MM, Mahoo HF (2011) An empirical framework for scaling-out of water system innovations: lessons from diffusion of water system innovations in the Makanya catchment in Northern Tanzania. Agric Water Manag 98:1761–1773
UN (2011) Global drylands: a UN system-wide response. Environment Management Group
UN HABITAT (2015) UN-Habitat global country activities report: 2015 – increasing synergy for greater national ownership. UN
UNEP-SEI (2009) Rainwater harvesting: a lifeline for human wellbeing, Stockholm Environment Institute and United Nations Environment Programme, 67 p. ISBN 978-92-807-3019-7
Vohland K, Barry B (2009) A review of in situ rainwater harvesting (RWH) practices modifying landscape functions in African drylands. Agric Ecosyst Environ 131:119–127
Walker S, Tsubo M, Hensley M (2005) Quantifying risk for water harvesting under semi-arid conditions. Part II. Crop yield simulation. Agric Water Manag 76:94–107
Wang Q, Zhang E, Li F, Li F (2008) Runoff efficiency and the technique of microwater harvesting with ridges and furrows, for potato production in semi-arid areas. Water Resour Manag 22:1431–1443
Wei H, Li JL, Liang TG (2005) Study on the estimation of precipitation resources for rainwater harvesting agriculture in semiarid land of China. Agric Water Manag 71:33–45
WILDCHINA (ed) (2012) Cross border journey. Trip notes from Vietnam and China. http://www.sswm.info/content/bunds
WOCAT (2007) In: Liniger H, Critchley W (eds) Where the land is greener– case studies and analysis of soil and water conservation initiatives worldwide
WOCAT (World Overview of Conservation Approaches and Technologies) (2012) WOCAT Database: Technologies. http://cdewocat.unibe.ch/wocatQT/index.php
Yazar A, Kuzucu M, Celik I, Sezen SM, Jacobsen S-E (2014) Water harvesting for improved water productivity in dry environments of the Mediterranean region. Case study: Pistachio in Turkey. J Agron Crop Sci 200(2014):361–370
Yepes T (2008) Investment needs for infrastructure in developing countries 2008–2015. Latin America and Caribbean Region, World Bank. Unpublished
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Yazar, A., Ali, A. (2016). Water Harvesting in Dry Environments. In: Farooq, M., Siddique, K. (eds) Innovations in Dryland Agriculture. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47928-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-47928-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-47927-9
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-47928-6
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)