Abstract
Prior to the space age (conventionally dated from 1957), humankind had never been able to take in the whole of a hemisphere in a single glance. In fact it had never had a global view of the world in which it lived. It was not until the first spacecraft went into orbit that our horizons expanded and we saw our planet as never before. During more than four decades of spaceflight, planet Earth has been rediscovered through the systematic collection and analysis of vast amounts of information. At the turn of the century/millennium, satellite-provided services in many fields of application (environmental monitoring, navigation, weather forecasting, communication, etc) are taken for granted. We’ve come to depend on the satellites in a way that would have been unimaginable a few decades ago.
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References
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Ironically, objections of the State Department and DoD against the distribution of civil high-resolution Earth imagery (in the optical and microwave regions) and the proliferation of space technology have been around ever since and continue to be a major issue in US space policy. Special rules (including shutter control) may be imposed in particular conflict situations to restrict US-based commercial remote-sensing firms from unauthorized distribution of their imagery. Special rules apply also to the export of space technology by US companies. However, with space-imaging technology readily available outside the USA, the US-internal control functions became more or less ineffective as of 2000.
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J. P. Burrows, M. Buchwitz, M. Eisinger, V. Rozanov, M. Weber, A. Richter, A. Ladstätter-Weißenmayer 1998, “The Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment (GOME), Mission, Instrument Concept, and first scientific results”, Proceedings of the third ERS Symposium Florence, Italy, March 18–23, 1997. Space at the service of our Environment, 1997. ISBN 92–9092–656–2, ESA SP 414, pp. 585–590
U. Platt, D. Perner, H. W. Pätz, “Simultaneous measurements of atmospheric CH2O, O3, and NO2 by differential optical absorption,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 84, 1979, pp. 6329–6335
J. F. Noxon, “Nitrogen dioxide in the stratosphere and Troposphere. Measurement by ground-based absorption spectroscopy,” Science, 189, 1975, p. 547
H. Edner, P. Ragnarson, S. Spännere, S. Svanberg, “Differential optical absorption spectroscopy (DOAS) system for urban atmospheric pollution monitoring,” Applied Optics, Jan. 20, 1993, Vol. 32, No. 3, pp. 327–333
J. Frerick, H. Bovensmann, S. Noel, J. P. Burrows, M. R. Dobber, “SCIAMACHY on-ground/in-flight calibration, performance verification, and monitoring concepts,” Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 3117, pp. 176–187, Earth Observing Systems II, William L. Barnes; Ed. Publication Date: 09/1997
J. P. Burrows, K. V. Chance, A. P. H. Goede, R. Guzzi, B. J. Kerridge, C. Muller, D. Perner, U. Platt, J.-P. Pommereau, W. Schneider, R. J. Spurr, H. van der Woerd, “Global Ozone Monitoring Experiment: Interim Science Report”, ESA SP-1151 Edited by T. D. Guyenne and C. J. Readings ISBN 92–9092–041 – 6 European Space Agency 1993
“The Secrets of SPOT-5 Supermode,” SPOT Magazine, No 31, 2000, pp. 21–23
Oxford cryocooler information provided by Manny Tward of TRW, Redondo Beach, CA
J. G. Turtle, M. J. DiPirro, P. J. Shirron, “Liquid/gas phase separators for the Superfluid Helium On-Orbit Transfer (SHOOT) project,” Advances in Cryogenic Engineering, 39, 1994, p. 121
T. R. Gosnell, “Laser Cooling of a Solid by 65 K Starting from Room Temperature,” Optical Letters, Vol. 24, No. 15, 1999, pp. 1041–1043
B. C. Edwards, J. E. Anderson, R. I. Epstein, Solid State Optical Cooler Developments, Proceedings of the International Cryocooler Conference, Keystone, CO, June 2000, Paper No 76
G. L. Mills, A. J. Mord, P. A. Slaymaker, “ Design and Predicted Performance of an Optical Cryocooler for a Focal Plane Application,” Proceedings of the International Cryocooler Conference, Keystone, CO, June 2000
http://www.nationalacademies.org/ssb/smallsatappendb.htm
R. A. Wood, N. A. Foss, “Micromachined Bolometer Arrays,” Laser Focus World, 30, pp.101–106, 1994
J. C. Ritter, M. Nisenoff, G. Price, S. A. Wolf, IEEE Transactions on Magnetics, Vol. 27, 1991, p. 2533
Excerpts are reprinted with permission from “Assessment of Mission Size Trade-offs for NASA’s Earth and Space Science Missions,” pp. 6–12, National Academy Press, 2000, Copyright (2000) by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy of the National Academy Press, Washington, D. C.
Kepler is considered a founder of modern astronomy, he formulated the famous three laws of planetary motion. They comprise a quantitative formulation of Copernicus’s theory that the planets revolve around the sun.
Note: The “signal weakening” effect is due to the widening cross-sectional area of the light ray as it propagates through space — resulting of course in ever fewer photons per unit area of cross-section, hence, of measurable energy.
C. E. Willey, B. Huettl, D. Dowen, S. W. Hill, “Miniature Mechanisms Tool Kit for Micro Spacecraft,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 115–119
A. L. Lew, B. Q. Le, P. D. Schwartz, et al., “Microsatellites: An Enabling Technology for Government and Commercial Aerospace Applications,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 124–134
Note: The Vela (meaning “watchman” in Spanish) S/C series of DoD was designed to monitor worldwide compliance with the 1963 nuclear test ban treaty. Vela-1 was launched Oct. 17, 1963, Vela-6 was launched July 20, 1965.
R. Fleeter, “Being Disruptive,” Launchspace Magazine, Volume 3.01, Feb/Mar 1998
B. Shirgur, D. Shannon, “The Design and Feasibility Study of Nanosatellite Structures for Current and Future FSI Micro-missions,” 14th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug. 21–24, 2000, SSC00-VII-5
D. M. Simpson, “The Snapdragon Family,” Proceedings of the European Conference on Spacecraft Structure, Materials & Mechanical Testing, ESA/ESTEC, Noordwijk, The Netherlands, Nov. 29 — Dec. 1, 2000, pp.337–344
M. Williamson, “Advancing Satellite Technology,” Space & Communications, March-April 1998, pp. 3–7
Note: Solar concentrators reflect radiation so as to expose the cells to more radiation, together with multi-junction devices that capture a larger slice of the spectrum (UV, VNIR, and IR). Efficiencies of about 30% and more are expected to be achieved in the early years of the next decade.
T. Meink, K. Reinhardt, K. Luu, et al, “Power Sail — A High Power Solution,” Proceedings of the AIAA Space 2000 Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
Ch. F. Hoeber, D. J. Kim, “The Continued Evolution of Communication Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 47, No 2–9, July-November 2000, pp. 65–89, Special issue: Space an Integral Part of the Information Age
V. Venugopalan, “Lithium-Ion Cells for Space Applications,” Journal of Spacecraft Technology, Vol. 11, No 1, Jan. 2001, pp. 1–73
P. D. Schwartz, A. E Hepp, et al., “Spacecraft Miniaturization: Integrated Power Source,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No. 2, 2001, pp. 106–109
http://www-techtrans.jpl.nasa.gov/success/stories/cse.html
C. E. Willey, R. S. Bokulic, W. E. Skullney, R. C. Schulze, “Ka-band Hybrid Inflatable Dish Antenna,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 110–111
M. Lou, H. Fang, L. M. Hsia, “Development of Space Inflatable/Rigidizable STR Aluminum Laminate Booms,” Proceedings of the AIAA Space Conference and Exhibition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
http://gnctech.gsfc.nasa,gov/gto/library/staif/staifl71.html
Y. Guo, “Autonomous Solar Navigation System,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 119121
J. Rash, R. Parise, K. Hogie, E. Criscuolo, J. Langston, C. Jackson, H. Price, “Internet Access to Spacecraft,” Proceedings’of the 14th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan UT, Aug. 21–24, 2000, SSC00-IX-4
http://ipinspace.gsfc.nasa.gov/general/
J. Rash, R. Parise, K. Hogie, E. Criscuolo, J. Langsten, “Internet Technology on Spacecraft,” Proceedings of the AIAA Space Conference and Exhibition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
P. Shaki, “Industry, Agencies Adopt Data Collection Standard,” Space News, Oct. 26 — Nov. 1, 1998, p. 6
R. Killough, M. McLelland, “Designing Command and Telemetry Systems Using MIL-STD-1553 and CCSDS,” Proceedings of the 14th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, SSC00-XI-4, Aug. 21–24, 2000, Logan, UT
M. E. Fraeman, “Advanced Spacecraft Architectures: 1394 Serial Bus,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 114–115
http://www.space.com/news/international/japan_satcapture.html
P. Hou, M. Petrou, C. Underwood, “Advanced On-board Image Compression in Conjunction with Cloud Detection for Microsatellite Optical Imaging,” Proceedings of the 13th AIAA/USU Conference for Small Satellites, Aug. 23–26, 1999, Logan UT, SSC99-IV-5
P. Trinadh, R. Seshaiah, U. N. Das, V. Nalanda, “Effect of Transmission Channel Errors on ADPCM and JPEG Compression,” Journal of Spacecraft Technology, Vol. 9, No 1, 1999, pp. 23–36
Note: In “lossy compression” information is thrown away during compression, so that the original data cannot be recovered by decompression. The decompression produces an approximation to the original data, with the level of approximation dependent on the compression ratio. In “lossless compression” the original data is reproduced exactly by decompressing the compressed stream.
B. V. Brower, A. Lan, J. M. McCabe, “Hyperspectral lossless compression,” Proceedings of SPIE, Imaging Spectroscopy V, Vol 3753, Denver, CO, July 19–21, 1999, pp. 247–257
Note: “Rice” is an adaptive variable-length compression scheme on images, an algorithm developed by Robert F. Rice of JPL and implemented by Frank Rabe of the Technical University in Braunschweig, Germany for the Mars Pathfinder Lander IMP imaging system.
Robert F. Rice, “Some Practical Universal Noiseless Coding Techniques, Part III, Module PSI14,K+,” JPL Publication 91–3, November 15, 1991.
P. Yeh, J. Venbrux, P. Bhatia, W. H. Miller, “A Real-Time High Performance Data Compression Technique for Space Applications,” Proceedings of IEEE/IGARSS Conference, Honolulu, HI, July 24–28, 2000
J. Bowles et al., “New results from the ORASIS/NEMO compression algorithm,” Proceedings of SPIE, Imaging Spectroscopy V, Vol 3753, Denver, CO, July 19–21, 1999, pp. 226–234
G. J. Dittberner, “NOAA’s Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) Systems and Plans,” Proceedings of the EUMETSAT Meteorological Satellite Data User’s Conference, Copenhagen, Denmark, Sept. 6–10, 1999, pp. 33–38
F. C. Vandenbussche, “SOHO’s Recovery — An Unprecedented Success Story,” ESA Bulletin, Nr. 97, March 1999, pp. 39–47
J. Bates, “Software Extends Satellite Missions When Gyroscopes Fail,” Space News, Feb. 5, 2001, p. 8
http://www.aero.org/news/current/pseudogyro.html
J. Bistrow, D. Folta, K. Hartman, “A Formation Flying Technology Vision,” Proceedings of AIAA 2000 Space Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
G. H. Fountain, et al, “A Technology Path to Distributed Remote Sensing,” IAA 2nd International Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observation, Berlin, April 12–16, 1999, pp. 189–193
J. Esper, P. V. Panetta, et al., “NASA/GSFC Nano-Satellite Technology for Earth Science Missions,” IAA 2nd International Symposium on Small Satellites for Earth Observation, Berlin, April 12–16, 1999, pp. 219–225
F. H. Bauer, K. Hartman, J P. How, et al., “Enabling Spacecraft Formation Flying through Spaceborne GPS and Enhanced Automation Technologies,” Proceedings of the ION-GPS Conference, Nashville TN, Sept. 15, 1999
W. Ferster, “Tiny Satellite Fleet May Function as One Craft,” Space News, Aug. 17–23, 1998, p. 7
http://www.vs.afrl.af.mil/vsd/techsat21/
W. Ferster, “NRO Awards Giant Satellite Contract to Boeing,” Space News, Sept. 13, 1999, p. 1
C.-W. Park, J. P. How, L. Capots, “Sensing Technologies for Formation Flying Spacecraft in LEO using CDGPS and Inter-Spacecraft Communication System,” ION GPS 2000, Sept. 19–22, 2000, Salt Lake City, UT, pp. 1595–1607
E. A. Olsen, P. A. Stadler, M. S. Asher, “Long-Baseline Differential GPS based Relative Navigation for Spacecraft with Crosslink, Ranging Measurements,” ION GPS 2000, Sept. 19–22, 2000, Salt Lake City, UT, pp. 1612–1621
A. A. Chacos, P. A. Stadter, W. S. Devereux, “Autonomous Navigation and Crosslink Communication Systems for Space Applications,” JHU/APL Technical Digest, Vol. 22, No 2, 2001, pp. 135–143
L. L. Fu, Y. Menard, “Summary of the Third Joint TOPEX/Poseidon and Jason-1 Science Working Team Meeting,” The Earth Observer, Jan/Feb. 2001, Vol. 13, No 1, pp. 17–18
A. Moccia, N. Chiacchio, A. Capone, “Spaceborne bistatic Synthetic Aperture Radar for remote Sensing applications,” International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 21, No 18, 2000, pp. 3395–3414
N. J. Willis, “Bistatic Radar,” Artech House, Boston, 1991, ISBN: 0–89006-427-X
J. Wurman, “Vector Winds from a Single Transmitter Bistatic Dual-Doppler Radar Network,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, July 1994
J. Wurman, M. Randall, C. Frush, E. Loew, C. Holloway, “Design of a Bistatic Dual-Doppler Radar for Retrieving Vector Winds using One Transmitter and a Remote Low-Gain Passive Receiver,” Proceedings of IEEE, Dec. 1994
J. Wurman, S. Heckman, D. Boccippio, “A Bistatic Multiple-Doppler Radar Network: Part 1, Theory,” Journal of Applied Meteorology, Dec. 1993
http://aaron.ou.edu/bistatic/
A. Komjathy, J. L. Garrison, V. Zavorotny, “GPS: A New Tool for Ocean Science,” GPS World, April 1999, pp. 50–56
A. M. Peterson, C. C. Teague, G. C. Tyler, “Bistatic-radar observation of long-period, directional ocean-wave spectra with LORAN-A,” Science, Vol. 170, 1970, pp. 158–161
Note: Coherent detection requires synchronization between master and slaves. The synchronization may either be achieved using a crosslink from master to slaves, or by accurate synchronization of all involved to the same source.
H. Runge, R. Bamler, J. Mittermayer, F. Jochim, D. Massonnet, E. Thouvenot, “The Interferometric Cartwheel for Envisat,” 3rd International Symposium of IAA, Berlin, April 2–6, 2001, pp.187–190
The term “cartwheel orbit” was initially coined by D. Massonnet of CNES in 1997
D. Massonnet, “Capabilities and Limitations of the Interferometric Cartwheel,” CNES paper presented at the CEOS Workshop in Toulouse, October 1999
J. Mittermayer, G. Krieger, M. Wendler, A. Moreira, E. Thouvenot, T. Amoit, R. Bamler, “Preliminary Interferometric Performance Estimation for the Interferometric Cartwheel in Combination with ENVISAT ASAR,” CEOS Workshop, Tokyo, Japan, April 2–5, 2001
http://www.hughespace.com/factsheets/xips/xips.html
http://www.planetary.org/solarsail/missions/planetary_solar_sai.html
M. Leipold, C. E. Garner, et al., “ODISSEE -A Proposal for Demonstration of a Solar Sail in Earth Orbit,” Proceedings of Third IAA Conference on Low-Cost Planetary Missions, Pasadena, CA, April 27 – May 1, 1998
M. Leipold, C. E. Garner, “Solar Sails — Exploiting the Space Resource of the Solar Radiation Pressure,” ESA Conference on ‘Engineering and Economic Aspects into the 21st Century,’ 20–22, Oct., 1998, Cagliari, Italy
M. Leipold, M. Eiden, CE. Garner, et al., “Solar Sail Technology Development and Demonstration,” Proceedings of the 4th IAA International Conference on Low-Cost Planetary Missions, JHU/APL, Laurel, MD, May 2–5, 2000
http://powerweb.lerc.nasa.gov/pvsee/publications/TheBasics.html
D. C. Wilkinson, M. A. Shea, D. F. Smart, “A Case History of Solar and Galactic Space Weather Effects on the Geosynchronous Communication Satellite TDRS-1,” Advances in Space Research, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2000, pp. 27–30
V. I. Degtjarev, G. V. Popov, A. D. Johnstone, “Solar Wind Control of Spacecraft Charging Conditions in Geostationary Orbit during Magnetic Storms,” Advances in Space Research, Vol. 26, No 1, 2000, pp. 37–40
http://www.newspace.com/ref/msl/QuickLooks/scathaQL.html
N. L. Johnson, “Monitoring and Controlling Debris in Space,” Scientific American, Aug. 1998, pp. 42–47
“Dossier: Orbital debris,” CNES Magazine No 4, Jan. 1999, pp. 11–28
http://www.aero.org/cords/index.html
M. J. Meshishnek, “Overview of the Space Debris Environment,” The Aerospace Corporation Report No. TR-95(5231)-3, SMC Report No. SMC-TR-95–9, March 15, 1995. Also at: http://www.aero.org/publications/pa-pers/pdfs/TR-95–5231–3.pdf
W. Flury, “Space Debris: An Overview,” Earth Space Review, Vol. 9, No 4, 2000, pp. 40–47
M. L. Fudge, “The Effect of Orbital Debris on Commercial Satellites,” Earth Space Review, Vol. 9, No 4, 2000, pp. 48–56
N. L. Johnson, “Man-Made Debris In And From Lunar Orbit,” Earth Space Review, Vol. 9, No 4, 2000, pp. 57–65
B. Reijnen, “Space Debris: A Responsibility of States,” Earth Space Review, Vol. 9, No 4, 2000, pp. 66–70
http://www.peterson.af.mil/usspace/boxscore.htm
N. L. Johnson, Joseph, P. Loftus, “Reducing Orbital Debris: Standards and Practices,” Launchspace, March/April 1999, p. 24
M. Bille, D. Dickey, “A Microsatellite ‘Space Guard’ Force,” Proceedings of the 13th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Aug. 23–26, 1999, Logan UT, SSC99-II-6
W. Flury, A. Massart, T. Schildknecht, U. Hugentobler, J. Kuusela, Z. Sodnik, “Searching for Small Debris in the Geostationary Ring,” ESA Bulletin, No 104, Nov. 2000, pp. 92–100
Information provided by Walter Flury of ESA/ESOC, Darmstadt, Germany
Note: The objective of the Gemini tether missions was to see if tethers could be used for rendezvous and docking in preparation for the future moon missions. A parachute cable was used as the tether, which was attached to the Agena by a spacewalking astronaut. The other mission (Gemini-11) experimented with rotation about the CM (Center of Mass) to see if it was stable — it was. The Gemini missions were not electrodynamic in nature, nor were they performed for scientific purposes — as were the TSS missions.
http://infinity.msfc.nasa.gov/Public/ps01/ps02/tablel.html
http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/station/assembly/flights/2000/2r.html
R. W. Reynolds, “Specific Contributions to the Observing System: Sea Surface Temperature,” Proceedings of OCEANOBS 99, Oct. 18–22, 1999, Saint Raphael, France
W. P. Menzel, “Cloud Tracking with Satellite Imagery: From the Pioneering Work of Ted Fujita to the Present,” Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, Vol. 82, No 1, Jan. 2001, pp. 33–47
T. Fujita, W. A. Bohan, “Detailed Views of Mesoscale Cloud Patterns Filmed from ATS-1 Pictures,” a 16 mm film of 9 minute length is available from Walter A. Bohan Co,, P. O. Box 736, Park Ridge, IL 60068–0736, USA
J. R. Greaves, W E. Shenk, “The Development of the Geosynchronous Weather Satellite System,” Monitoring Earth’s Ocean, Land, and Atmosphere from Space — Sensors, Systems, and Applications, Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics, AiAA, Volume 97, 1985, pp. 150–181
Information provided by Malcolm A. LeCompte of Astro Vision Inc.
D. Crommelynck, S. Dewitte, “Metrology of Total Solar Irradiance Monitoring,” Advances in Space Research, Vol. 24, No 2, 1999, pp. 195–204
R. B. Lee III, M. A. Gibson, R. S. Wilson, S. Thomas, “Long-term total solar irradiance variability during sunspot cycle 22,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 100, No A2, pp. 1667–1675, Feb. 1, 1995
E. N. Parker, “The Physics of the Sun and the Gateway to the Stars,” Physics Today, June 2000, pp. 26–31
J. R. Hickey, et al., “ Total solar irradiance measurements by ERB/Nimbus-7, a review of nine years,” Space Science Review, Vol. 48, 1988, pp. 321–342
C. Fröhlich, “Observations of Irradiance Variations,” pp. 15–24 in Solar Variability and Climate, Editors: E. Friis-Christensen, C. Fröhlich, J. D. Haigh, M. Schüssler and R. von Steiger, Kluwer Academic Publishers, ISBN 0–7923-6741–3,2000
D. V. Hoyt, H. L. Kyle, J. R. Hickey, R. H. Maschhoff, “The Nimbus-7 solar total irradiance: A new algorithm for its derivation,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 97, 1992, pp. 51–63
E. F. Harrison, P. Minnis, B. Barstrom, et al., “Seasonal variation of cloud radiative forcing derived from tire ERBE,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 95:1990, pp. 18667–18703
Information provided by M. Rouzé of CNES
http://remotesensing.oma.be/solarconstant/solar.html
http://estirm2.oma.be/solarconstant/artiçles/articlel.html#references
T. I. Gombosi, “Modeling Gringauz’s legacy from the solar wind to weakly magnetized solar system bodies,” International Symposium on Space Plasma Studies by In-Situ and Remote Measurements (Gringauz Symposium), Moscow, Russia, June 1–5, 1998.
http://www-spof.gsfc.nasa.gov/Education/whsolwi.html
Note: In the very early period of space flight, the technique of optical tracking was employed by the use of the Baker-Nunn camera.
Note: In the very early period of space flight, the technique of optical tracking was employed by the use of the Baker-Nunn camera.
E. J. Hoffman, “Spacecraft Design Innovations in the APL Space Department,” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Vol. 13, No. 1, 1992, pp. 167–181
R. B. Kershner, “Technical Innovations in the APL Space Department,” Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1980, pp. 264–278
Note: The very concept of being able to compute a location on Earth by observing the change in frequency of a spaceborne transmitter during a single pass was initially ridiculed by a number of reputable scientists.
The Legacy of Transit, Special issue of Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest, Jan.-March 1998, Volume 19, No.
J. Rush, “Current Issues in the Use of the Global Positioning System Aboard Satellites,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 47, No 2–9, 2000, pp. 377–387
W. Bertiger, P. Abusali, et al, “The First Low Earth Orbiter with Precise GPS Positioning: TOPEX/Poseidon,” ION Proceedings, Sept. 1993
P. Argentiero, et al, “Results of GEOS 3/ATS-6 Satellite-to-Satellite Tracking Orbit Determination Experiment,” Journal of Geophysical Research, Vol. 84, No. B8, pp. 3921–3925, 1979.
Information provided by P. Schwintzer of GFZ Potsdam
http://www.estec.esa.nl/vrwww/explorer/GRAVITY.html#introduction
P. Touboul, B. Foulon, E. Willemenot, “Electrostatic Space Accelerometers for Present and Future Missions,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 45, No. 10, 1999, pp. 605–617
V. Josselin, P. Touboul, R. Kielbasa, “Capacitive detection scheme for space accelerometer applications,” Sensors and Actuators, Vol. 78, 1999, pp. 92–98
C. J. Koblinsky, P. Gaspar, and G. Lagerloef, editors, “The Future of Spaceborne Altimetry: Oceans and Climate Change,” Joint Oceanographic Institutions Inc., Washington, DC, 1992, pp. 72–73
http://esapub.esrin.esa.it/microgra/micrv8n2/natv8n2.htm
L. Sehnal, R. Peresty, L. Pospisilova, A. Kohlhase, “Dynamical Microaccelerometric Measurements on board Space Shuttle,” Acta Astronautica, Vol. 47, No 1, 2000, pp. 27–34
N. Clark, P. Furth, S. Horan, “Intelligent Reconfigurable Integrated Satellite Processor,” Proceedings of the 14th AIAA/USU Conference on Small Satellites, Logan, UT, Aug. 21–24, 2000, SSC00-VI-1
W. K. Burns, “Fiber Optic Gyroscopes — Light is Better,” Optics & Photonics News, May 1998, pp. 28–32
K. Hotate, “Fiber Optic Gyros Put in New Spin on Navigation,” Photonics Spectra, April 1997, pp. 108–112
P. J. Klass, “Fiber-Optic Gyros Now Challenging Laser Gyros,” Aviation Week & Space Technology, July 1, 1996, pp. 62–64
http://www.esrin.esa.it/htdocs/esa/progs/mg.html
http://liftoff.msfc.nasa.gov/Shuttle/Astro2/description/ips/ips.html
R. R. Ninneman, “Middeck Active Control Experiment Reflight (MACE-II) Program: Lessons Learned,” Proceedings of AIAA Space 2000 Conference and Exposition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
R. E Gasparovic, R. K. Raney, R. C. Beal, “Ocean Remote Sensing Research and Applications at ALP,” JHU/ APL Technical Digest, Vol. 20, No 4, pp. 600–610, 1999
http://sd-www.jhuapl.edu/Intro/2.6ocean.html#3
R. K. Raney, “The Delay/Doppler Radar Altimeter,” IEEE Transactions on Geoscience and Remote Sensing, Vol. 36, No 5, Sept. 1998, pp. 1578–1588
R. K. Raney, D. L. Porter, “WITTEX: An Innovative Three-Satellite Radar Altimeter Concept,” Proceedings of IEEE/IGARSS Conference, Honolulu, HI, July 24–28, 2000
http://www.estec.esa.nl/explorer/cryosat/index.html
S. T. Lowe, J. L. LaBrecque, C. Zuffada, L. J. Romans, L. E. Young, G. A. Hajj, “First spaceborne observations of an earth-reflected GPS signal,” submitted to Radio Science, July 2000.
J. S. LaBrecque, L. Loewe, L. Young, E. Caro, S. Wu, L. Romans, “Recent Advances in the study of GPS Earth surface reflections from orbiting receivers,” UNAVACO Community Meeting, 1998
J.-C. Auber, A. Bibaut, J.-M. Rigal, “Characterizations of Multipath on Land and Sea at GPS Frequencies,” Proceedings of ION GPS-94, Vol. 2, pp. 1155–1171
Note: A multistatic altimeter can be regarded as a multistatic radar for which the transmitters and the receivers belong to different systems.
M. Martin-Neira, “A Passive Reflectometry and Interferometry System (PARIS): Application to Ocean Altime-try,” ESA Journal, 17 (4), 1993, pp. 331–355
M. Martin-Neira, et al., “ESA’s activities on GPS reflected signals for Earth observation,” Proceedings of Ionospheric Determination and Specification for Ocean Altimetry and GPS Surface Reflections Workshop, JPL, Pasadena, Dec. 1997
J. L. Garrison, S. J. Katzberg, M. I. Hill, “Effect of Sea Roughness on Bistatically Scattered Range Coded Signals from the Global Positioning System,” Geophysical Research Letters, Vol. 25, No 13, 1998, pp. 2257–2260
Information provided by T P. Yunck of NASA/JPL
A. Komjathy, J. L. Garrison, V. Zavorotny, “GPS: A New Tool for Ocean Science,” GPS World, April 1999, pp. 50–56
Note: Satellites (Ofeq series) launched from Israel (Palamchim Air Force Base south of Tel Aviv) orbit from east to west, as opposed to the traditional west to east direction, as Israel can only safely launch rockets to the west, over the Mediterranean Sea.
Note: With regard to the GEO concept, credit is almost universally given to only one author in the literature, namely to A. C. Clarke, who published his first article almost 20 years after that of Hermann Potocnic. In fact, some space age historians talk about the “Clarke Orbit” when referring to a geostationary Earth orbit. This is an injustice to the accomplishments of Hermann Potocnic.
Note: A 1st edition of the book could not be located anywhere. The reprint of “Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums, “ Ausgabe von 1929, is available at Turia + Kant Verlag: ISBN: 3–85132-060–3
http://www.ijs.si/slo/country/culture/potocnik.html
http://spacescience.com/headlines/y2000/ast26oct_2.htm?1ist65492
G. Leisman, “Analysis of on-board Servicing Architectures using Microsatellites, Advanced Propulsion, Secondary Opportunities and the Military Spaceplane Concept,” Proceedings of the AIAA 2000 Space Conference and Exhibition, Long Beach, CA, Sept. 19–21, 2000
B. Berger, “Astronauts Use Space Vision to Assemble Station,” Space News, Feb. 1, 1999, p. 10
“The Inspector Product Family,” brochure provided by F. Steinsiek of DASA/Space Infrastructure, Bremen
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Kramer, H.J. (2002). Earth Observation Short-History. In: Observation of the Earth and Its Environment. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-56294-5_1
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