Skip to main content

Abstract

Grasslands are biological communities containing few trees and characterized by mixed herbaceous vegetation dominated by grasses. Although grassland types range from the dense bamboo of the tropics to the northern continental steppes, from dry plains to arctic grasslands, and though they occur on every continent and large island throughout the world, certain abiotic and biotic features are common to most grasslands.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Adams, D.E. and Anderson, R.C. (1978) The response of central Oklahoma grassland to burning. Southwestern Naturalist, 23, 623 – 32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adams, D.E., Anderson, R.C. and Collins, S.L. (1982) Differential response of woody and herbaceous species to summer and winter burning in an Oklahoma grassland. Southwestern Naturalist, 27, 55 – 61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adegbola, A.A. and McKell, C.M. (1966) Regrowth potential of coastal Bermuda grass as related to previous nitrogen fertilization. Agronomy journal, 58, 145 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahshapanek, D. (1962) Phenology of a native tall-grass prairie in central Oklahoma. Ecology, 43, 135 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Akin, D.E. and Burdick, D. (1977) Rumen microbial degradation of starch-containing bundle sheath cells in warm-season grasses. Crop Science, 17, 529 – 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, E.B. (1982a) Germination and competition of Salsola kaliwith native C3 and C4 species under three temperature regimes. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 109, 39 – 46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen, E.B. (1982b) Water and nutrient competition between Salsola kaliand two native grass species (Agropyron smithii and Bouteloua gracilis). Ecology, 63, 732 – 41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ares, J. (1976) Dynamics of the root system of blue grama. Journal of Range Management, 29, 208–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Aspinall, D. (1960) An analysis of competition between barley and white persicaria. II. Factors determining the course of competition. Annals of Applied Biology, 48, 637 – 54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bahrani, J., Beaty, E.R. and Tan, K.H. (1983) Relationship between carbohydrate, nitrogen contents, and regrowth of tall fescue tillers. Journal of Range Management, 36, 234 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker, B.S. and Jung, G.A. (1972) Growth and metabolic changes occurring in orchard grass during temperature acclimation. Botanical Gazette, 133, 120–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartos, D.L. and Sims, P.L. (1974) Root dynamics of a shortgrass ecosystem. Journal of Range Management, 27, 33 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baskin, J.M. and Baskin, C.C. (1978) A discussion of the growth and competitive ability of C3 and C4 plants. Castanea, 43, 71 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bazzaz, F.A. (1979) The physiological ecology of plant succession. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 10, 351 – 71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendse, F. (1979) Competition between plant populations with different rooting depths. Oecologia, 43, 19 – 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berendse, F. (1981) Competition between plant populations with different rooting depths. II. Pot experiments. Oecologia, 48, 334 – 41.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bewley, J.D. (1979) Physiological aspects of desiccation tolerance. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 30, 195 – 238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Biswell, H.H. and Weaver, J.E. (1933) Effects of frequent clipping on the development of roots and tops of grasses in prairie sod. Ecology, 14, 368 – 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Björkman, O. (1971) Comparative photosynthetic CO, exchange in higher plants, in Photosynthesis and Photorespiration(eds M.D. Hatch, C.B. Osmond and R.O. Slatyer ), Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 18 – 32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Björkman, O. (1976) Adaptive and genetic aspects of C4 photosynthesis, in C02 Metabolism and Plant Productivity(eds R.H. Burris and C.C. Black ), University Park Press, Baltimore, Maryland, pp. 287 – 309.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, C.C. (1971) Ecological implications of dividing plants into groups with distinct photosynthetic production capacities. Advances in Ecological Research, 7, 87 – 114.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, C.C. (1973) Photosynthetic carbon fixation in relation to net CO2 uptake. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 24, 253 – 86.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, C.C., Chen, T.M. and Brown, R.H. (1969) Biochemical basis for plant competition. Weed Science, 17, 338 – 44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blake, A. (1935) Viability of germination of seeds and early life history of prairie plants. Ecological Monographs, 5, 405 – 60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokhari, U.G. (1977) Regrowth of western wheatgrass utilizing 14C-labeled assimilates stored in belowground parts. Plant and Soil, 48, 115 – 27.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokhari, U.G. (1978) Total nonstructural carbohydrates in the vegetation components of a shortgrass prairie ecosystem under stress conditions. Journal of Range Management, 31, 224 – 30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokhari, U.G. and Dyer, M.I. (1974) Carbohydrate reserves of the blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) at various environmental factors under growth chamber experiments, US International Biological Program Grassland Biome Technical Report Number 255, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokhari, U.G. and Singh, J.S. (1974) Effects of temperature and clipping on growth, carbohydrate reserves and root exudation of western wheatgrass in hydroponic culture. Crop Science, 14, 790 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bokhari, U.G., Dyer, M.I. and Singh, J.S. (1974) Labile and nonlabile energy in blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) as influenced by temperature, water stress, and fertilizer treatments. Canadian Journal of Botany, 52, 2289 – 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bookman, P.A. and Mack, R.N. (1982) Root interaction between Bromus tectorum and Poa pratensis: a three-dimensional analysis. Ecology, 63, 640 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boutton, T.W., Harrison, A.T. and Smith, B.N. (1980) Distribution of biomass of species differing in photo-synthetic pathway along the altitudinal transect in southeastern Wyoming grassland. Oecologia, 45, 287 – 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Boyer, J.S. (1970) Differing sensitivity of photosynthesis to low leaf water potentials in corn and soybean. Plant Physiology, 46, 236–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briske, D.D. and Stuth, J.W. (1982) Tiller defoliation in moderate and heavy grazing regime. Journal of Range Management, 35, 511 – 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Briske, D.D. and Wilson, A.M. (1977) Temperature effects on adventitious root development in blue grama seedlings. Journal of Range Management, 30, 276 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, L.F. and Trlica, M.J. (1977) Interacting effects of soil water, temperature, and irradiance on CO2 exchange rates of two dominant grasses of the shortgrass prairie. Journal of Applied Ecology, 14, 197 – 204.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.H. (1978) A difference in N use efficiency in C3 and C4 plants and its implications in adaptation and evolution. Crop Science, 18, 93 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.H. and Blaser, R.E. (1965) Relationships between reserve carbohydrate accumulation and growth rate in orchardgrass and tall fescue. Crop Science, 5, 577 – 82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, R.W. (1977) Water relations in range plants, in Rangeland Plant Physiology(ed. R.E. Sosebee), Range Science Series Number 4, Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado, pp. 97 – 140.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, W.V. (1977) The Kranz syndrome and its subtypes in grass systematics. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 23, 1 – 97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bukey, F.S. and Weaver, J.E. (1939) Effects of frequent clipping on the underground food reserves of certain prairie grasses. Ecology, 20, 246 – 52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bunce, J.A. and Miller, L.N. (1976) Differential effects of water stress on respiration in the light in woody plants from wet and dry habitats. Canadian Journal of Botany, 54, 2457 – 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burleson, W.H. and Hewitt, G.B. (1982) Response of needle-and-thread and western wheatgrass to defoliation by grasshoppers. Journal of Range Management, 35, 223 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buwai, M. and Trlica, M.J. (1977) Multiple defoliation effects on herbage yield, vigor and total nonstructural carbohydrates of five range species. Journal of Range Management, 30, 164 – 71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cable, D.R. (1971) Growth and development of Arizona cottontop (Trichachne californica[Benth.] Chase). Botanical Gazette, 132, 119 – 45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cable, D. R. (1982) Partial defoliation stimulates growth of Arizona cottontop. Journal of Range Management, 35, 591 – 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Canode, C.L. and Law, A.G. (1975) Seed production of Kentucky bluegrass associated with age of stand. Agronomy journal, 67, 790 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caswell, H. and Reed, F.C. (1975) Indigestibility of C4 bundle sheath cells by the grasshopper, Melanoplus confusus. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 68, 686 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caswell, H. and Reed, F. C. (1976) Plant-herbivore interactions: the indigestibility of C4 bundle sheath cells by grasshoppers. Oecologia, 26, 151 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caswell, H., Reed, F., Stephenson, S.N. and Werner, P.A. (1973) Photosynthetic pathways and selective herbivory: a hypothesis. American Naturalist, 107, 465 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charley, J.L. (1977) Mineral cycling in rangeland ecosystems, in Rangeland Plant Physiology(ed. R.E. Sosebee), Range Science Series Number 4, Society for Range Management, Denver,, Colorado, pp. 215 – 56.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charley, J.L. and West, N.E. (1975) Plant-induced soil chemical patterns in some desert shrub-dominated ecosystems of Utah. Journal of Ecology, 63, 945 – 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Christie, E.K. and Detling, J.K. (1982) Analysis of inter-ference between C3 and C4 grasses in relation to temperature and soil nitrogen supply. Ecology, 63, 1277 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chung, H.H. and Trlica, M.J. (1980)14C distribution and utilization of blue grama as affected by temperature, water potential and defoliation regimes. Oecologia, 47, 190–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark, F.E. (1977) Internal cycling of 15nitrogen in shortgrass prairie. Ecology, 58, 1322 – 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clary, W.P. (1975) Ecotypic adaptation in Sitanion hystrix. Ecology, 56, 1407 – 15.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clary, W.P. (1979) Variation in leaf anatomy and CO2, assimilation in Sitanion hystrix ecotypes. Great Basin Naturalist, 39, 427 – 32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby, W.G., Drake, M., Field, D.L. and Kreowski, G. (1965) Seasonal pattern of fructosan in orchardgrass siubble as influenced by nitrogen and harvest management. Agronomy journal, 57, 169 – 73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, C.W. and Stoddart, L.A. (1953) Some growth responses of crested wheatgrass following herbage removal. Journal of Range Management, 6, 267 – 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cooper, J.P. and Tainton, N.M. (1968) Light and temperature requirements for the growth of tropical and temperate grasses. Herbage Abstracts, 38, 167 – 76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coughenour, M.B., Dodd, J.L., Coleman, D.C. and Lauenroth, W.K. (1979) Partitioning of carbon and SO2 - sulfur in a native grassland. Oecologia, 42, 22 –40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coupland, R.T. (ed.) (1979) Grassland ecosystems of the world: analysis of grasslands and their uses, International Biological Programme 18, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crampton, E.W. and Harris, L.E. (1969) Applied Animal Nutrition, W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, California.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crider, F.J. (1955) Root-growth stoppage resulting from defoliation of grass, US Department of Agriculture Technical Bulletin 1102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dahl, B.E. and Hyder, D.N. (1977) Developmental morphology and management implications, in Rangeland Plant Physiology(ed. R.E. Sosebee ), Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado, pp. 257 – 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dalrymple, R.L. and Dwyer, D.D. (1967) Root and shoot growth of range grasses. Journal of Range Management, 20, 141 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, H. (1932) A study of certain factors which affect the calcium, phosphorus and nitrogen content of prairie grass. Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science, 12, 42 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Daubenmire, R. (1968) The ecology of fire in grasslands. Advances in Ecological Research, 5, 209 – 66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, R.L. (1969) Effects of soil nutrients and moisture on root/shoot ratios in Lolium perenne L. and Trifolium repens L. Annals of Botany, 33, 571 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J.L. and Milthorpe, F.L. (1966a) Leaf growth in Dactylis glomeratafollowing defoliation. Annals of Botany, 30, 173 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davidson, J.L. and Milthorpe, F.L. (1966b) The effect of defoliation on the carbon balance in Dactylis glomerata. Annals of Botany, 30, 185 – 98.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davies, W.J. and Kozlowski, T.T. (1977) Variations among woody plants in stomatal conductance and photosynthesis during and after drought. Plant and Soil, 46,435–44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denmead, O.T., Freny, J.R. and Simpson, J.R. (1976) A closed ammonium cycle within a plant community. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 8, 161 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Denno, R.F., Raupp, M.J., Tallamy, D.W. and Reichelderfer, C.F. (1980) Migration in heterogeneous environments: differences in habitat selection between the wing forms of the dimorphic planthopper Prokelisia marginata (Homoptera: Delphacidae). Ecology, 61, 859 – 67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detling, J.K. (1979) Processes controlling blue grama production on the shortgrass prairie, in Perspectives in Grassland Ecology(ed. N.R. French ), Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 25 – 42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detling, J.K., Dyer, M.I. and Winn, D.T. (1979) Net photosynthesis, root respiration, and regrowth of Bouteloua gracilis following simulated grazing. Oecologia, 41, 127 – 34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Detling, J.K., Winn, D.T., Proctor-Gregg, C. and Painter, E.L. (1980) Effects of simulated grazing by below-ground herbivores on growth, CO2 exchange, and carbon allocation patterns of Bouteloua gracilis, Journal of Applied Ecology, 17, 771 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dickinson, C.E. and Dodd, J.L. (1976) Phenological pattern in the shortgrass prairie. American Midland Naturalist, 96, 367 – 78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dina, S.J. and Klikoff, L.G. (1973) Effect of plant moisture stress on carbohydrate and nitrogen content of big sagebrush. Journal of Range Management, 26, 207–9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dobson, J.W. and Beaty, E.R. (1977) Forage yields of five perennial grasses with and without white clover at four nitrogen rates. Journal of Range Management, 30, 461 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doley, D. and Trirett, N.B.A. (1974) Effects of low water potentials on transpiration and photosynthesis in Mitchell grass (Astrebla lappacea). Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1, 539 – 50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Doliner, L.H. and Jolliffe, P.A. (1979) Ecological evidence concerning the adaptive significance of the C4 dicarboxylic acid pathway of photosynthesis. Oecologia, 38, 23–34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downes, R.W. (1971) Adaptation of sorghum plants to light intensity: its effect on gas exchange in response to changes in light, temperature and C02, in Photosynthesis and Photorespiration(eds M.D. Hatch, C.B. Osmond and R.O. Slatyer ), Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 57 – 62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Downton, W.J.S., Berry, J. and Tregunna, E.B. (1969) Photosynthesis: temperate and tropical characteristics within a single grass genus. Science, 163, 78 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, M., Colby, W.C. and Bredakis, E. (1963) Yield of orchardgrass as influenced by rates of nitrogen and harvest management. Agronomy journal, 55, 361 – 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • DuBois, J.D. and Kapustka, L.A. (1983) Biological nitro-gen influx in an Ohio relict prairie. American Journal of Botany, 70, 8 - 16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dwyer, D.D., Elder, W.C. and Single, G. (1963) Effects of height and frequency of clipping on pure stands of range grasses in north central Oklahoma, Oklahoma Agriculture Experiment Bulletin B-614, Stillwater, Oklahoma.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, M.I. (1980) Mammalian epidermal growth factor promotes plant growth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, USA, 77, 4836 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dyer, M.I. and Bokhari, U.G. (1976) Plant-animal interactions: studies of the effects of grasshopper grazing on blue grama grass. Ecology, 57, 762 – 72.

    Google Scholar 

  • Eckert, R.E., Jr and Spencer, J.S. (1982) Basal-area growth and reproductive responses of thurber needlegrass and squirreltail to weed control and nitrogen fertilization. Journal of Range Management, 35, 610 – 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehleringer, J.R. (1978) Implications of quantum yield differences on the distributions of C3 and C4 grasses. Oecologia, 31, 255 – 67.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehleringer, J.R. and Björkman, O. (1977) Quantum yields for C02 uptake in C3 and C4 plants: dependence on temperature, CO2 and O2 concentration. Plant Physiology, 59, 86 – 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehleringer, J.R., Björkman, O. and Mooney, H.A. (1976) Leaf pubescence: effects on absorptance and photosynthesis in a desert shrub. Science, 192, 376 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehrlich, P.R. and Raven, P.H. (1964) Butterflies and plants: a study in coevolution. Evolution, 18, 586 – 608.

    Google Scholar 

  • El-Sharkawy, M.A. and Hesketh, J.K. (1965) Photosynthesis among species in relation to characteristics of leaf and C02 diffusion resistance. Crop Science, 5, 517 – 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Everitt, J.H., Alaniz, M.A. and Gerbermann, A.H. (1982) Chemical composition of native range grasses growing on saline soils of the South Texas Plains. Journal of Range Management, 35, 43–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, A.B. and Barker, R.E. (1976) Rates of photosynthesis and transpiration and diffusive resistance of six grasses grown under controlled conditions. Agronomy journal, 68, 487 – 90.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fraenkel, G. S. (1959) The raison d’etre of secondary plant substances. Science, 129, 1466 – 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Freeland, W.J. and Janzen, D.H. (1974) Strategies in herbivory by mammals: the role of plant secondary compounds. American Naturalist, 108, 269–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gay, C.W. and Dwyer, D.D. (1965) Effect of one year’s nitrogen fertilization on native vegetation under clipping and burning. Journal of Range Management. 18, 273 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerwick, B.C. and Williams, B.C., III (1978) Temperature and water regulation of gas exchange of Opuntia polyacantha. Oecologia, 35, 149 – 59.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, R.M. (1974) A comparison of potential photosynthesis, productivity and yield of plant species with differing photosynthetic metabolism. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1, 107 – 17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gifford, R.M. and Marshall, C. (1973) Photosynthesis and assimilate distribution in Lolium multiflorum Lam following differential tiller defoliation. Australian Journal of Biological Science, 26, 517–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Greenway, H. and West, R.K. (1973) Respiration and mitochondrial activity in Zea mays roots as affected by osmotic stress. Annals of Botany, 37, 21 – 35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grime, J.P. (1979) Plant Strategies and Vegetation Processes, John Wiley and Sons, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griswald, S.M. (1936) Effects of alternate moistening and drying on germination of seeds of western range grasses. Botanical Gazette, 98, 243 – 69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadley, E.B. (1970) Net productivity and burning responses of native eastern North Dakota prairie com-munities. American Midland Naturalist, 84, 121 – 35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, G.K. (1977) Adaptation to photosynthesis and diurnal oscillation of root respiration rates for Lolium multiflorum. Physiologia Plantarum, 39, 275 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, G.K. (1978) Utilization of photosynthates for growth, respiration, and storage in tops and roots of Lolium multiflorum. Physiologia Plantarum, 42, 5 – 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, J.L. and Benton, R.A. (1966) The behavior of seeds in soil. II. The germination of seeds on the surface of a water supplying substrate. Journal of Ecology, 54, 151 – 66.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper, H., Daniel, H. and Murphy, H. (1933) The total nitrogen, phosphorous and calcium of common weeds and native grasses in Oklahoma. Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science, 4, 36 – 44.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harris, G.A. (1977) Root phenology as a factor of competition among grass seedlings. Journal of Range Management, 30, 172 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hart, R.H. and Balla, E.F. (1982) Forage production and removal from western and crested wheatgrass under grazing. Journal of Range Management, 82, 362 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, W. (1973) Studies on the origin, evolution and distribution of the Gramineae. V. The subfamily Festucoideae. Australian Journal of Botany, 21, 201 – 34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatch, M.D. (1971) Mechanism and function of the C4-pathway of photosynthesis, in Photosynthesis and Photorespiration(eds M.D. Hatch, C.B. Osmond and R.O. Slatyer), Wiley Interscience, New York, pp. 132 – 52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatch, M.D., Kagawa, T. and Craig, S. (1975) Subdivisions of C4-pathway species based on differing C4 acid carboxylating systems and ultrastructural features. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 2, 111 – 28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Havercamp, J. and Whitney, G.G. (1983) The life history characteristics of three ecologically distinct groups of forbs associated with the tallgrass prairie. American Midland Naturalist, 109, 105–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heitschmidt, R.K. Price, D.L., Gordon, R.A. and Frasure, J.R. (1982) Short duration grazing at the Texas Experimental Ranch: effects on aboveground net primary production and seasonal growth dynamics. Journal of Range Management, 35, 367 – 71.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herrera, C.M. (1982) Grasses, grazers, mutualism and coevolution: a comment. Oikos, 38, 254 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hickman, O.E. (1975) Seasonal trends in the nutritive content of important range forage species near Silver Lake, Oregon, US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Research Paper, PNW-187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hilliard, J.H. and West, S.H. (1970) Starch accumulation associated with growth reduction at low temperatures in a tropical plant. Science, 168, 494–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hinnant, R.T. and Kothmann, M.M. (1982) Potassium content of three grass species during winter. Journal of Range Management, 35, 211 – 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson, K.C. (1974) Influence of partial defoliation on photosynthesis, photorespiration, and transpiration by Lucerne leaves of different ages. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1, 561 – 78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson, K.C. and Baas-Becking, H.G. (1977) Effect of defoliation on root growth of some arid zone perennial plants. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 29, 31 – 42.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hodgkinson, K.C., Smith, N.G. and Miles, G.E. (1972) The photosynthetic capacity of stubble leaves and their contribution to growth of the Lucerne plant after high level of cutting. Australian journal of Agricultural Research, 23, 225–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hsiao, T.C. (1973) Plant responses to water stress. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 24, 519 – 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hulbert, L. C. (1967) Fire and litter effects on undisturbed bluestem prairie. Ecology, 50, 874 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hutchison, K.J. (1971) Productivity and energy flow in grazing/fodder conversion systems. Herbage Abstracts, 41, 1 – 10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyder, D.N. (1972) Defoliation in relation to vegetative growth, in The Biology and Utilization of Grasses(eds V.B. Younger and C.M. McKell ), Academic Press, New York, pp. 304 – 17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hyder, D.N., Everson, A.C. and Bement, R.E. (1971) Seedlings morphology and seeding failures with blue grama. Journal of Range Management, 24, 287 – 92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Imbamba, S.K. and Tieszen, L.L. (1977) Influence of light and temperature on photosynthesis and transpiration in some C3 and C4 vegetable plants from Kenya. Physiologia Plantarum, 39, 311 – 16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jain, S. (1979) Adaptive strategies: polymorphism, plasticity, and homeostasis, in Topics in Plant Population Biology, (eds O.T. Solbrig, S. Jain, G.J. Johnson and P.H. Raven), Columbia University Press, New York, pp. 160 – 87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, D.A. (1963) Responses of individual plants to harvesting. Botanical Review, 29, 532 – 94.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, D.A. (1964) Effects of defoliation on forage plant physiology, in Forage Plant Physiology and Soil Relationships(eds W. Keller and T.A. Ronningen), American Society of Agronomy Special Publication Number 5, pp. 67 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jameson, D.A. and Huss, D.L. (1959) The effect of clipping leaves and stems on number of tillers, herbage weights, root weights and food reserves of little bluestem. journal of Range Management, 12, 122 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M.G. (1967) Forage and nitrogen production on nitrogen-fertilized California grasslands compared with a subclover-grass association. Agronomy journal, 59, 209 – 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, M.G., Street, J.E. and Williams, W.A. (1974) Leaching and uptake of nitrogen applied to annual grass and clover-grass mixtures in lysimeters. Agronomy journal, 66, 256 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kelting, R.W. (1957) Winter burning in central Oklahoma grasslands. Ecology, 38, 520 – 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemp, P.R. and Williams, G.J. III (1980) A physiological basis for niche separation between Agropyron smithii(C3) and Bouteloua gracilis (C4). Ecology, 61, 846 – 58.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kemp, P.R., Cunningham, G.L. and Adams, H.P. (1983) Specialization of mesophyll morphology in relation to C4 photosynthesis in the Poaceae. American Journal of Botany, 70, 349 – 54.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinsinger, F.E. and Shaulis, N. (1961) Carbohydrate content of underground parts of grasses as affected by clipping. Journal of Range Management, 14, 9 – 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knipe, O.D. (1968) Effects of moisture stress on germination of alkali sacaton, galleta, and blue grama. Journal of Range Management, 21, 3 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Knipe, O.D. (1973) Western wheatgrass germination as related to temperature, light, and moisture stress. Journal of Range Management, 26, 68 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koshi, P.T., Stubbendieck, J., Eck, H.V. and McCully, W.G. (1982) Switchgrass: forage yield, forage quality, and water-use efficiency. Journal of Range Management, 35, 623 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozlowski, T. T. (ed.) (1972) Water deficits and plant growth, Vol. III, Plant Responses and Control of Water Balance, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaGory, K.E., LaGory, M.K. and Perino, J.V. (1982) Response of big and little bluestem (Andropogon) seedlings to soil and moisture conditions. Ohio Journal of Science, 82, 19 – 23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lauenroth, W.K., Dodd, J.L. and Sims, P.L. (1978) The effects of water- and nitrogen-induced stresses on plant community structure in a semi-arid grassland. Oecologia, 36, 211 – 22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Launchbaugh, J.L. and Owensby, C.E. (1978) Kansas rangelands: their management based on a half century of research, Agriculture Experiment Station Bulletin 622. Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lawlor, D.W. (1976) Water stress induced changes in photosynthesis, photorespiration, respiration and C02 compensation concentration of wheat. Photosynthetica, 10, 378 – 87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Levitt, J. (1972) Response of Plants to Environmental Stresses, Academic Press, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotero, J., Woodhouse, W.W. and Petersen, R.G. (1966) Local effect on fertility of urine voided by grazing cattle. Agronomy journal, 58, 262 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ludlow, M.M. and Ng, T.T. (1976) Effect of water deficit on carbon dioxide exchange and leaf elongation rate of Panicum maximum var. trichoglume. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 3, 401 – 13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lush, W.M. and Evans, L.T. (1974) Translocation of photosynthetic assimilate from grass leaves, as influenced by environment and species. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 1, 417 – 31.

    Google Scholar 

  • May, L.H. (1960) The utilization of carbohydrate reserves in pasture plants after defoliation. Herbage Abstracts, 30 239–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Maynard, M.L. and Gates, D.H. (1963) Effects of wetting and drying on germination of crested wheatgrass seed. Journal of Range Management, 16, 119 – 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • McDonough, W.T. (1977) Seed Physiology, in Rangeland Plant Physiology(ed. R.E. Sosebee), Range Science Series Number 4, Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado, pp. 15 5 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGinty, A., Smeins, F.E. and Merrill, L.B. (1983) Influence of spring burning on cattle diets and performance on the Edwards Plateau. Journal of Range Management, 36, 175 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • McKendrick, J.D., Owensby, C.E. and Hyde, R.M. (1975) Big bluestem and Indiangrass vegetative reproduction and annual reserve carbohydrate and nitrogen cycles. Agro-Ecosystems, 2, 75 – 93.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, S.J. (1978) Serengeti ungulates: feeding selectivity influences the effectiveness of plant defence guilds. Science, 99, 806 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, S.J. (1979) Grazing as an optimization process: grass-ungulate relationships in the Serengeti. American Naturalist, 113, 691 – 703.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, S.J. and Fullem, L.W. (1970) Photosynthesis and photorespiration in Typha latifolia. Plant Physiology, 45, 703 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • McNaughton, S.J., Wallace, L.L. and Coughenour, M.G. (1983) Plant adaptation in an ecosystem context: effects of defoliation, nitrogen, and water on growth of an African C4 sedge. Ecology, 64, 307 – 18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mederski, H.J., Chen, L.H. and Curry, R. B. (1975) Effect of leaf water deficit on stomatal and nonstomatal regulation of net carbon dioxide assimilation. Plant Physiology, 55, 589–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Merrill, E.H., Mayland, H.F. and Peek, J.M. (1980) Effects of a fall wildfire on herbaceous vegetation on xeric sites in the Selway - Bitterroot Wilderness, Idaho. Journal of Range Management, 33, 363 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R.F. and Donart, G.B. (1979) Response of Bouteloua eriopoda (Torr.) Tor. and Sporobolus flexuosus(Thumb.) Rydb. to season of defoliation. Journal of Range Management, 32, 63 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mohammad, N., Dwyer, D.D. and Busby, F.E. (1982) Responses of crested wheatgrass and Russian wildrye to water stress and defoliation. Journal of Range Management, 35, 227 – 30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A. and Gulmon, S.L. (1982) Constraints on leaf structure and function in reference to herbivory. Bio Science, 32, 198 – 206.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A., Ehleringer, J.R. and Berry, J.A. (1976) High photosynthetic capacity of a winter annual in Death Valley. Science, 194, 322 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A., Troughton, J.H. and Berry, J.A. (1974) Arid climates and photosynthetic systems. Carnegie Institution of Washington Year Book, 73, 793 – 805.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murata, Y. (1969) Physiological responses to nitrogen in plants, in Physiological Aspects of Crop Yield(eds. J.D. Estin, F.A. Haskins, C.Y. Sullivan and C.H.M. Van Bavel ), American Society of Agronomy, Madison, Wisconsin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nobel, P.S. (1980) Water vapor conductance and CO2 uptake for leaves of a C4 desert grass. Ecology, 61, 252 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Old, S.M. (1969) Microclimates, fire and plant production in an Illinois prairie. Ecological Monographs, 39, 355 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oomes, M.J.M. and Elberse, W.T. (1976) Germination of six grassland herbs in microsites with deficient water contents. Journal of Ecology, 64, 745 – 55.

    Google Scholar 

  • Osman, A.M. (1971) Root respiration of wheat plants as influenced by age, temperature, and irradiance of shoots. Photosynthetica, 10, 378 – 87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Oswalt, D.L., Bertrand, A.R. and Teel, M.R. (1959) Influence of nitrogen fertilization and clipping on grass roots. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America, 23, 228 – 30.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, D.F. (1980) How plants may benefit from the animals that eat them. Oikos, 35, 230 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, D.F. and Wiegert, R. G. (1981) Mutualism between grasses and grazers: an evolutionary hypothesis. Oikos, 36, 376 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owen, D.F. and Wiegert, R.G. (1982) Grasses and grazers: is there a mutualism? Oikos, 38, 258 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E. and Smith, E.F. (1973) Burning true prairie, Proceedings of the Third Midwest Prairie Conference(ed. L.C. Hulbert), Division of Biology, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E., Hyde, R.M. and Anderson, K. (1970a) Effects of clipping and supplemental nitrogen and water on loamy upland bluestem range. Journal of Range Management, 23, 341 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E., Paulson, G.M. and McKendrick, J.D. (1970b) Effect of burning and clipping on big bluestem reserve carbohydrates. Journal of Range Management, 23, 358–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E., Rains, J.R. and McKendrick, J.D. (1974) Effects of one year of intensive clipping on big bluestem. Journal of Range Management, 27, 341 – 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Owensby, C.E., Smith, E.F. and Rains, J.R. (1977) Carbohydrate and nitrogen reserve cycles for continuous, season-long and intensive-early stocked Flint Hills bluestem range. Journal of Range Management, 30, 258 – 60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parker, K.W. and Sampson, A.W. (1931) Growth and yield of certan Gramineae by reduction of photosynthetic tissue. Hilgardia, 5, 361 – 81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parrish, J.A.D. and Bazzaz, F.A. (1976) Underground niche separation in successional plants. Ecology, 57, 1281 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parton, W.J. and Risser, P. G. (1979) Simulated impact of management practices upon the tallgrass prairie, in Perspectives in Grassland Ecology(ed. N.R. French ), Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pearson, D.J. and Hunt, L.A. (1972) Studies on the daily course of carbon exchange in alfalfa plants. Canadian Journal of Botany, 50, 1377 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peet, M.R., Anderson, R.C. and Adams, M.S. (1975) Effect of fire on big bluestem production. American Midland Naturalist, 94, 15 – 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pemadasa, M.A. (1981) The mineral nutrition of the vegetation of a montane grassland in Sri Lanka. Journal of Ecology, 69, 125 – 34.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pettit, R.D. and Fagan, R.E. (1974) Influence of nitrogen and irrigation on carbohydrate reserves of buffalograss. Journal of Range Management, 27, 279–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Phillips, D.A. (1980) Efficiency of symbiotic nitrogen fixation in legumes. Annual Review of Plant Physiology, 31, 29 – 49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pierre, W.H. and Bertram, F.D. (1929) Kudzu production with special response to influence of frequency of cutting on yields and formation of root reserves. journal of American Society of Agronomy, 21, 1079 – 101.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poston, F.L., Pedigo, L.P., Pearce, L.P. and Hammond, R.B. (1976) Effects of artificial and insect defoliation on soybean net photosynthesis. Journal of Economic Entomology, 69, 109 – 12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Power, J.F. (1971) Evaluation of water and nitrogen stress on bromegrass growth. Agronomy journal, 63, 726–8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Quinton, D.A., McLean, A. and Stout, D.G. (1982) Vegetation and reproductive growth of bluebunch wheatgrass in interior British Columbia. Journal of Range Management, 35, 46 – 51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz, D. (1978) Abundance and diaspore weight in rare and common prairie species. Oecologia, 37, 213–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabinowitz, D., Bassett, B.K. and Renfro, G.E. (1979) Abundance and neighborhood structure for sparce and common grasses in a Missouri prairie. American Journal of Botany, 66, 867 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rains, J.R., Owensby, C.E. and Kemp, K.E. (1975) Effects of nitrogen fertilization, burning, and grazing on reserve constituents of big bluestem. Journal of Range Management, 28, 358–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rauzi, F. (1975) Seasonal yield and chemical composition of crested wheatgrass in southeastern Wyoming. Journal of Range Management, 28, 219 – 21.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rauzi, F. and Fairbourn, M.L. (1983) Effects of annual applications of low N fertilizer rates on a mixed grass prairie. Journal of Range Management, 36, 359 – 62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rawson, H.M., Gegg, J E. and Woodward, R. G. (1977) The effect of atmospheric humidity on photosynthesis, transpiration and water use efficiency of leaves of several plant species. Planta, 134, 5–10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reardon, P.O., Leinweber, C.L. and Merrill, L.B. (1972) The effect of bovine saliva on grasses. Journal of Animal Science, 34, 897 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reardon, P.O., Leinweber, C.L. and Merrill, L.B. (1974) Response of sideoats grama to animal saliva and thiamine. Journal of Range Management, 27, 400 – 1.

    Google Scholar 

  • Redmann, R.E. (1971) Carbon dioxide exchange by native Great Plains grasses. Canadian Journal of Botany, 49, 1341–4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reichhardt, K.L. (1982) Succession of abandoned fields on the shortgrass prairie, northeastern Colorado. South-western Naturalist, 27, 299 – 304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, E.L. (1950) Growth and floral development of five species of range grasses in central Oklahoma. Botanical Gazette, 111, 361 – 77.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rice, E.L. and Parenti, R.L. (1978) Causes of decreases in productivity in undisturbed tall-grass prairie. American Journal of Botany, 65, 1091 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risser, P.G. (1969) Competitive relationships among herbaceous grassland plants. Botanical Review, 35, 251 – 84.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risser, P.G. (1980) Methods for inventory and monitoring of vegetation, litter and soil surface condition, National Academy of Science. Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Risser, P.G., Birney, E.C., Blocker, H.D., May, S.W., Parton, W.J. and Wiens, J.A. (1981) The True Prairie Ecosystem, Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robocker, W.C., Curtis, J.T. and Ahlgren, H.L. (1953) Some factors affecting emergence and establishment of native grass seedlings in Wisconsin. Ecology, 34, 194 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roe, F.E. (1951) The North American Buffalo: A Critical Study of the Species in its Wild State, University of Toronto Press, Toronto, Canada.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rogler, G.A. (1944) Relative palatabifities of grasses under cultivation on the Northern Great Plains. Journal of the American Society of Agronomy, 36, 487 – 96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roos, F. H. and Quinn, J.A. (1977) Phenology and reproductive allocation in Andropogon scoparius(Gramineae) populations in communities of different successional stages. American Journal of Botany, 64, 535 – 46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ryle, G.J.A. and Powell, C.E. (1975) Defoliation and regrowth in the Graminacous plant: the role of current assimilate. Annals of Botany (London), 39, 297 – 310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sala, O.E., Lauenroth, W.K., Parton, W.J. and Trlica, M.J. (1981) Water status of soil and vegetation in a shortgrass steppe, Oecologia, 48, 317 – 31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sanders, T.H., Ashley, D.A. and Brown, R.H. (1977) Effects of partial defoliation on petiole phloem area, photosynthesis, and 14C translocation in developing soybean leaves. Crop Science, 17, 548 – 50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shantz, H.L. and Pimeisel, L.N. (1927) The water requirements of plants of Akron, Colorado. Journal of Agricultural Research, 34, 1093–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shiflet, N.N and Dietz, H.E. (1974) Relationship between precipitation and annual rangeland herbage production in southeastern Kansas. Journal of Range Management, 27, 272–6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Silverton, J.W. (1982) No evolved mutualism between grasses and grazers. Oikos, 38, 253 – 4.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simpson, J.R. (1965) The transference of nitrogen from pasture legumes to an associated grass under several systems of management in pot culture. Australian Journal of Agriculture Research, 16, 915 – 26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sims, P.L. and Singh, J.S. (1978) The structure and function of ten western North American grasslands, 111. Net primary production, turnover and efficiencies of energy capture and water use. Journal of Ecology, 66, 673 – 97.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, J.S., Lauenroth, W.K. and Milchunas, D.G. (1983) Geography of grassland ecosystems, in Progress in Physical Geography, Vol. 7, pp. 46 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slack, C.R., Roughan, P.G. and Bassett, H.C.M. (1974) Selective inhibition of mesophyll chloroplast development in some C4 pathway species by low night temperature. Planta, 118, 57 – 73.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slatyer, U. G. (1976) Comparative photosynthesis, growth and transpiration of two species of Atriplex. Planta, 93, 175–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, A.E. and Leinweber, D.L. (1971) Relationship of carbohydrate trend and morphological development of little bluestem tillers. Ecology, 52, 1052 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E.F. and Young, V.A. (1959) The effect of burning on the chemical composition of little bluestem. Journal of Range Management, 12, 139 – 40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, E.F., Young, V.A. Anderson, K.L., Ruliffson, W.S. and Rogers, S.N. (1960) The digestibility of forage with burned and nonburned bluestem pasture as determined with grazing animals. Journal of Animal Science, 19, 388–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sosebee, R.E. and Wiebe, H.H. (1971) Effect of water stress and clipping on photosynthate translocation in two grasses. Agronomy journal, 63, 14 – 19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Splittstoesser, W.E. (1966) Dark CO, fixation and its role in the growth of plant tissue. Plant Physiology, 41, 755 – 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stephenson, R.A., Brown, R.H. and Ashley, D.A. (1976) Translocation of 14C-labeled assimilate and photosynthesis in C3 and C4 species. Crop Science, 16, 285 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Steuter, A.A. and Wright, H.A. (1983) Spring burning effects on redberry juniper-mixed grass habitats. Journal of Range Management, 36, 161 – 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stowe, L.G. and Teeri, J.A. (1978) The geographic distribution of C4 species of the Dicotyledonae in relation to climate. American Naturalist, 112, 609 – 23.

    Google Scholar 

  • Teeri, J.A. and Stowe, L.G. (1976) Climatic patterns and the distribution of C4 grasses in North America. Oecologia, 23, 1 – 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tieszen, L.L. (1970) Photosynthetic properties of some grasses in eastern South Dakota. Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science, 49, 78 – 89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tieszen, L.L., Senyimba, M.M., Imbamba, S.K. and Troughton, J.H. (1979) The distribution of C3 and C4 grasses and carbon isotope discrimination along an altitudinal and moisture gradient in Kenya. Oecologia, 37, 337 – 50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tomanek, G.W., Martin, E.P. and Albertson, F.W. (1958) Grazing preference comparisons of six native grasses in the mixed prairie. Journal of Range Management, 11, 191 – 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trlica, M.J. (1977) Distribution and utilization of carbohydrate reserves in range plants, in Rangeland Plant Physiology(ed. R.E. Sosebee), Range Science Series Number 4, Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado, pp. 73 – 96.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trlica, M.J. and Cook, C.W. (1972) Carbohydrate reserves of crested wheatgrass and Russian wildrye as influenced by development and defoliation. Journal of Range Management, 25, 430 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van Valen, L. and Sloan, R.E. (1966) The extinction of the multi-tuberculates. Systematic Zoology, 15, 261 – 78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Viets, F.G. (1962) Fertilizers and the efficient use of water. Advances in Agronomy, 14, 223 – 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wallace, L.L. (1981) Growth, morphology and gas exchange of mycorrhizal and nonmycorrhizal Panicum coloratumL., a C4 grass species, under different clipping and fertilization regimes. Oecologia, 49, 272 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waller, S.S. and Lewis, J.K. (1979) Occurrence of C3 and C4 photosynthetic pathways in North American grasses. Journal of Range Management, 32, 12 – 28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward, C.Y. and Blaser, R.E. (1961) Carbohydrate food reserves and leaf area in regrowth of orchardgrass. Crop Science, 1, 366 – 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wardlaw, I.F., (1969) The effect of water stress on translocation in relation to photosynthesis and growth. II. Effect during leaf development in Lolium temulentumL. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 22, 1 – 6.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, J.E. (1954) North American Prairie, Johnsen Publishing Company, Lincoin, Nebraska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, J.E. (1958) Summary and interpretation of underground development in natural grassland communities. Ecological Monographs, 28, 55 – 78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, J.E. and Albertson, F. W. (1956) Grasslands of the Great Plains. Johnsen Publishing Company, Lincoln, Nebraska.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, J.E. and Darland, R.W. (1949) Soil-root relationships of certain native grasses in various soil types. Ecological Monographs, 19, 303 – 38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, R.J. (1949) Water usage of certain native grasses in prairie and pasture, Ecology, 22, 175 – 91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weaver, T. (1982) Distribution of root biomass in welldrained surface soils. American Midland Naturalist, 107, 393 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Webb, W.L., Lauenroth, W.K., Szarek, S.R. and Kinerson, R. S. (1983) Primary production and abiotic controls in forests, grasslands, and desert ecosystems in the United States. Ecology, 64, 134 – 51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, J. (1980) The effects of plant density, species proportion and potassium-phosphorous fertilization on interference between Trifolium incarnatum and Lolium multiflorumwith limited nitrogen supply. Journal of Ecology, 68, 969 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weinmann, H. (1948) Underground development and reserves of grasses: a review. Journal of the British Grassland Society, 3, 115 – 40.

    Google Scholar 

  • Westoby, M. (1980) Relations between genet and tiller population dynamics: survival of Phalaris tuberosa tillers after clipping. Journal of Ecology, 68, 863 – 70.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, E.M. (1961) A possible relationship of little bluestem distribution to soils. Journal of Range Management, 14, 243 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, E.M. and Lewis, J.K. (1969) Ecological effect of a clay soil’s structure on some native grass roots. Journal of Range Management, 22, 401 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, E.M., Gartner, F.R. and Butterfield, R. (1983) Blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis) response to fertilization of a claypan soil in the greenhouse. Journal of Range Management, 36, 232 – 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, L.M. (1973) Carbohydrate reserves of grasses: a review. Journal of Range Management, 26, 13 – 18.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, L.M., Brown, J.H. and Cooper, C.S. (1972) Nitrogen fertilization and clipping effects on green needlegrass (Stipa viridula Trin.): III. Carbohydrate reserves. Agronomy journal, 64, 824 – 8.

    Google Scholar 

  • White, R.S. and Currie, P.O. (1983) Prescribed burning in the northern Great Plains: yield and cover responses of 3 forage species in the mixed grass prairie. Journal of Range Management, 36, 179–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wight, J.R. and Black, A.L. (1972) Energy fixation and precipitation use efficiency in a fertilized rangeland ecosystem of the northern Great Plains. Journal of Range Management, 25, 376 – 80.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, W.A., McKell, C.M. and Reppert, J.M. (1964) Sulfur fertilization of an annual-range soil during years below normal rainfall. Journal of Range Management, 17, 1 – 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A.M. and Briske, D.D. (1978) Drought and temperature effects on the establishment of blue grama seedlings. Proceedings of the First International Rangeland Congress, (ed. D.N. Hyder), Society for Range Management, Denver, Colorado, pp. 359 – 61.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, A.M. and Sarles, J.A. (1978) Quantification of growth drought tolerance and avoidance of blue grama seedlings. Agronomy journal, 70, 231 – 7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Young, J.A., Evans, R.A. and Kay, B.L. (1970) Germination characteristics of range legumes. Journal of Range Management, 23, 98 – 103.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Authors

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 1985 Chapman and Hall

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Risser, P.G. (1985). Grasslands. In: Chabot, B.F., Mooney, H.A. (eds) Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4830-3_11

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4830-3_11

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-010-8641-7

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-009-4830-3

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics