Climate Change and Health: Perspectives from Developing Countries

Background. The existence of previous studies on the effects of various meteorological factors related to malaria is limited in Mali. This study tries to address this gap, by investigating the effects of ambient temperature and its effect modifiers on malaria in Bamako. Specifically, it sought to analyse temporal trends in weather conditions in connection with malaria cases, to identify patterns, seasonality, and potential long-term trends, and to correlate specific weather events that may increase incidences of malaria. Methods. Daily data on malaria cases and meteorological factors from 2012 to 2022 were collected. Then, we quantified relationships between meteorological variables and malaria case outcomes. The association between meteorological factors and malaria was explored using Regression models, the Pearson Chi-Square Test, and the Generalized Linear Model (GLM) with Poisson Distribution. Results. The findings suggest that malaria increases with rising levels of rainfall and humidity, but usually decreases with increasing temperature. These insights underscore the importance of considering climatic factors—particularly temperature, humidity, and rainfall—in malaria prevention and control efforts in Bamako, Mali. Public health professionals and medical service providers should pay more attention to malaria prevention and control when the weather conditions of both high temperature and high humidity occur.

Background. The growing bodies of children are highly susceptible to the adverse effects of the changing climate, yet less priority, if any, is given to adaptive responses that mitigate their exposure to the climate change-induced risks. Despite this vulnerability, the focus of successive governments on the issue of climate change has been largely confined to economic benefits/gains with scant consideration for the impacts on human health. It is a gap that needs to be addressed. Methodology. The qualitative realist approach was adopted, involving review and information analysis of environmental hazards associated with the changing climate, which enabled an outline of how these impact on children’s health, including the identification of mitigation measures. Outcomes. This study calls attention to how the changing climate fueled hazards impacts the health of children. Recommendations on adaptive responses are provided and implications of study for government and/or policy makers are highlighted. Conclusion. Mitigation strategies and measures that minimise the impacts of climate change hazards on children’s health need to be prioritised, given their vulnerability. Recommendations are offered on steps that could be taken to reduce the impacts of climate change harmful environmental hazards on children’s health.

Climate change is having many impacts on Bangladesh’s coastal regions, including sea level rise, salinity intrusion, floods, cyclones, and coastal erosion. These changes are seriously disrupting local ecosystems and putting a lot of strain on the area’s healthcare systems. As people in these coastal areas try to deal with these problems, their access to basic health services is becoming increasingly difficult. This issue affects not just individuals, but the whole healthcare system, including public and private sectors, disease management, government efforts, and support from various organisations. Even though these risks are urgent, there has not been enough research on how climate change specifically affects healthcare in coastal Bangladesh. This study uses a variety of methods, including secondary data, field observations, interviews with experts, and GIS techniques to identify four main healthcare challenges: (1) weaknesses in infrastructure; (2) limited access to health services; (3) issues with water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) programmes; and (4) challenges in preventive healthcare. The study’s findings provide useful insights into the situation in coastal Bangladesh and can help guide the development of effective policies and interventions. These recommendations are also relevant for other coastal areas facing similar vulnerabilities worldwide.

Countries in the Global South are highly vulnerable to climate change's health impacts. While extensively researched, quantitative evidence has provided minimal insights into daily realities. To address this gap, in 2023 The Geneva Learning Foundation (https://​www.​learning.​foundation/​climate) organised an experience-sharing event dedicated to climate impacts on health for its 50,000+ international network of health and other workers in the Global South. An online survey collected data on perceptions and observed impacts. A total of 4700 health practitioners from 68 countries registered, with 1,260 submitting observations. Analysis revealed high levels of concern across multiple domains, with food security, malnutrition, vector-borne diseases, and water-borne diseases being the most frequently cited impacts. Qualitative analysis provided additional insights, including the tendency to contextualise climate change within broader environmental degradation, highlight complex interrelated impact pathways on community health, and identify vulnerabilities of specific groups such as women, pastoralists, etc. The study also uncovered examples of health workers collaborating with communities to build climate resilience. These cases emphasise the potential to leverage health workers’ close community relationships, trusted positions, and expert knowledge to support community-focused efforts in limiting climate change health impacts in the Global South. This approach could significantly contribute to adaptation strategies and resilience-building.

With the aim of strengthening dengue fever (DF) surveillance and management in Burkina Faso, our study was carried out in the Sahel, Centre and Hauts-Bassins regions. In addition to improving knowledge of DF-climate relationships, the study aimed to characterise the seasonal evolution of DF, highlighting the climatic parameters most strongly correlated with this disease, and develop models for forecasting DF incidence based on these climatic parameters. This work was carried out between 2016 and 2022 using monthly climate, epidemiological, and demographic data. First, linear regression models were generated. In a second stage, backward elimination calibration, followed by manual calibration, was used to eliminate the least relevant parameters to obtain the final models. Third, the variance inflation factor test, Breusch-Pagan test, Durbin-Watson test or Likelihood ratio test were used to verify statistical hypothesis. Fourth, the Taylor diagram and a graphical representation were used to validate the models. The incidence of DF can be predicted by: sunshine duration, rainfall, atmospheric pressure and vapor pressure in the Centre region; maximum temperature, minimum temperature, wind and atmospheric pressure in the Hauts-Bassins region; rainfall and wind in the Sahel region. These models showed fairly conclusive results during validation.

Vietnam is among the most vulnerable countries in the world regarding climate change. Climate-related hazards already affect human health and the health system in Vietnam. As the health system plays an important role in individual and community-level resilience, their components—such as healthcare facilities, health services, health workforces, and health supply chains—must continue to adapt to current and future challenges including climate change. This paper investigates the impacts of climate change on the Vietnamese health system and suggests strategies for health system practitioners to apply a climate lens and build a comprehensive approach to promoting resilient primary healthcare and health security. Analysis involved systematic literature and policy reviews, supplemented by two focus group discussions. The results showed that climatic factors such as temperature and rainfall show complex patterns of change across Vietnam. Natural disasters and extreme weather events occur every year across the country, causing human and physical damage in general and to the health sector in particular. Given the context, efforts have been made to develop and promote measures that can help the health sector in Vietnam overcome climate change challenges, evidenced in several national regulations and policies of Vietnam. Despite increased efforts to focus on climate and health, development challenges persist. Policy-related recommendations are proposed to further enhance the health sector to more effectively respond to climate change. They include establishing an early warning system, developing a climate-health database, vulnerability and adaptation mapping, and the scaling up of successful models on water, sanitation, and hygiene. Vietnam’s case is likely, in many aspects, to be also relevant to other developing countries.

Background. Climate change refers to the average of weather patterns in a particular area over a long period, representing the climate system’s general state (UNDP 2011). The consequences of the climatic changes are experienced unevenly by people. Concerning it, there are gender disparities as well, and women are disproportionately affected by climatic variations. Objective. The current research paper explores climate change's health-related and socio-economic impact on women and its probable causes through the existing literature. Methodology. A systematic literature review was used, and 45 articles were identified for thematic analyses with respect to the objectives and inclusion criteria of the study. Results. The study points out that health and well-being, gender-based violence, social roles and responsibilities, livelihood, and survival are some of the major areas that require attention in considering the impact of climate change on women in India. These impacts were found to be deeply rooted in their socio-cultural contexts that perpetuate different kinds of vulnerabilities. Conclusion. As gender can be an important dimension of adaptability as well, the research study points out recommendations for policymakers to integrate the needs of women and enhance their coping strategies and overall health.

Extreme weather events (EWEs) remain a threat to the world and the Global South, which remains behind in building resilience to climate change challenges. The study explores the impact of extreme weather events (EWEs) on disease incidence in marginalised areas of the Global South, highlighting the role of spatial temporal and power inequalities. It uses a desktop study methodology to conduct an integrative literature review, aiming to enhance the theoretical understanding of EWEs and disease dynamics. The study’s aim is to improve our theoretical understanding of EWEs and disease dynamics in marginalised areas. By bridging gaps in knowledge, researchers can contribute to more effective policies, better disaster responses, and enhanced community resilience. The findings indicate that vulnerabilities in the Global South are exacerbated by historical colonialism and ongoing inequalities in race, ethnicity, and class. These marginalised communities lack power and are often excluded from state transformation programmes, making them more susceptible to EWE-induced diseases. The study emphasises the need for inclusive community health frameworks to improve resilience and suggests using Complexity Theory to address the multifaceted challenges of EWEs and disease incidence through a multi-sectoral approach. This theoretical advancement aims to inform better policies, disaster responses, and community resilience strategies.

Background. This chapter discusses important changes of environmental factors attributed to climate change. Special attention is given to climate change impact on the One Health concept and its relation to human pathogen occurrence especially in developing countries and the overall implications on human health as a result. Furthermore, the chapter discusses impacts on food borne pathogens, how conditions favourable for pathogen survival in food may alter access and availability to safe food and food resources. Methods. Climate change-related scientific data often relies on prediction models in order to gain a better understanding of potential future impacts. However, prediction models are always an extrapolation of currently available data sets. This letter approaches the topic with available scientific evidence from previously published scientific data and data from the current studies of the authors, directly supporting the claim that changes in climate directly affect human pathogens. Results and Conclusions. Climate change is playing a profound role in the spread of infectious diseases in developing countries, with significant implications for public health. In order to address the health impacts of climate change in developing countries, it is crucial for governments and organisations to prioritise adaptation and resilience measures.

Nepal is progressing towards a climate resilient and low carbon health system, encountering various opportunities and challenges. This chapter aims to assess the progress of the Nepalese health system by utilising the 10 building blocks outlined in the World Health Organization’s framework for climate resilient and low carbon health systems. We present findings from a review of policy documents and research articles on climate change and health in Nepal. Our analysis revealed that the Nepalese government has demonstrated its commitments by formulating multiple policies to address climate mitigation, adaptation, and reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. The government has been conducting periodic capacity-building activities, funding local evidence generation and adaptation implementation, integrating climate change into health programmes, and developing a framework for reducing GHG emissions. Despite these advancements, Nepal faces numerous challenges. The country’s administrative division into three tiers reportedly results in insufficient communication and collaboration, which is a major obstacle. Additional challenges include the shortage of skilled human resources, limited and inconsistent data, limited access to advanced technology, and insufficient focus on evidence-based research. Nepal is likely to benefit from increased collaboration across various sectors and concerted efforts from the government and private agencies in its aspiration to develop a climate-resilient and low-carbon health system.

Background. The ‘Climate Clinic’ project was launched to enhance healthcare system resiliency by prioritising the upskilling of the workforce. This study aimed to describe a process for developing a pre-graduate climate and health curriculum. Methods. The climate and health education literature was reviewed with a focus on competencies. Focus group meetings with national and international experts, as well as pre-graduate students, were conducted using preformed questions, followed by a needs analysis. We selected core competencies from the Global Consortium on Climate and Health Education (GCCHE) to guide curriculum development, ensuring alignment with recognised standards. A curriculum framework with defined learning objectives and outcomes was proposed, along with flexible curricular programmes adaptable to various pre-graduate settings. Results. Key needs identified from the focus group meetings include establishing a pool of instructors, providing content on health-climate interaction, tailoring programmes to Türkiye-specific risks, strategically positioning educational programmes for flexible basic competencies, offering specialisation and certification options for trainers, and adopting a participatory policy at the leadership level involving students. Conclusions. This study is the first to propose a methodology, systematically conduct a needs analysis, and outline a roadmap for integrating a climate and health curriculum into pre-graduate programmes in Türkiye.

Background. Healthcare students (HCS) and healthcare practitioners (HCP) have an important role in addressing climate change (CC). This study aims to review original research on knowledge, perception, attitude and practice of CC among HCS and HCP. Methods. Two databases, PubMed and Google Scholar, were searched for original research articles using specific keywords. Studies were also obtained by examining the reference list of included articles. Only English language publications from 2008 to 2024 were included. Study quality was assessed using suitable checklists. Results. Sixty-six studies were included. Most were published during the period from 2017 to 2024, used quantitative methods, and were conducted in developing nations. The United States (US) published the highest number. Most studies were conducted among nursing and medical students, did not include an intervention, and were of good quality. Among HCS and faculty in developed nations, knowledge was good but practice required improvement. Among developing countries, knowledge ranged from poor to moderate and there were deficiencies in practice. Conclusions. Respondents wanted sessions on CC. More studies are required. Some studies had methodological limitations. Studies from non- or under-represented regions and countries are required.

Setting research priorities helps to optimise responses to climate-sensitive infectious diseases. When it comes to infectious disease justice, it is essential to identify the just paths for building resilience. This is particularly challenging in the area of climate-sensitive infectious diseases, in which available adaptation paths differ depending on epidemic evolution and future mitigation scenarios. Moreover, due to the communicable nature of infectious diseases and poorly controlled borders, transformative changes are necessary for controlling climate-sensitive infectious diseases in regions such as South America (SA). Attributable to the particularities of this continent, some containment measures, such as lockdowns or school closures, can create unjust burdens, as the case of the COVID-19 pandemic has shown. This study shows the outcome of a philosophical conversation aimed to identify the regional background conditions that make climate-sensitive infectious disease justice in SA necessary and possible.

Rural populations in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) have customarily depended on traditional diets and herbal medicine for sustenance and health. Older adults have been the primary custodians of traditional agricultural practices and indigenous medical knowledge. In the last few decades, the IHR has faced tremendous ecological pressure from various sources, with climate change being an integral force in re-shaping the agricultural and healthcare practices of residents. To explore the health experiences of older adults within the context of climate change, we undertook a qualitative study in three villages along the Indo-China border to study conceptions of health, health behaviours, healthcare utilisation, and healthy ageing. We found that climate change has impacted the availability, quality, quantity, and efficacy of traditional foods and herbs. This has engendered dependence on non-traditional diets that are believed to have introduced new diseases, which must now be treated with unfamiliar modern medicines. This chain of impacts is largely viewed unfavourably by older adults who have deep faith in traditional practices but are compelled to seek alternative dietary and medical options. This chapter highlights how climate change can acutely impact the health of vulnerable populations that are directly dependent on natural resources for food and medicine.

Urban overheating poses significant health risks to populations residing in urban areas. The rise in temperatures in urban environments can adversely affect human health in various ways. The heat stress caused by urban overheating manifests in an increase of heart rate, blood pressure, and the risk of cardiovascular events such as heart attacks and strokes. The impact of urban overheating extends beyond physical health to mental well-being. Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia, is facing a significant heat-health challenge due to the increasing impacts of heat exposure on its population. This study aims to develop an urban overheating vulnerability index for human health, to locate hotspots of vulnerable areas to pinpoint locations with heightened susceptibility to heat-related health risks, and to examine the spatially varying impact of urban overheating on public health. The study identified that the spatial epidemiology of urban overheating impacts the urban population unfairly and unevenly. Secondly, geographically weighted regression was used to explore the spatially varying impact of urban overheating on population health. Accordingly, the sub cities of Addis Kalema, Arada, and Lideta exhibit the highest vulnerability to urban overheating, with a significant population at risk. Gulelie, Nifas Silk, and Akaki Kality follow closely as the second most vulnerable areas in terms of heat hazards. Bole and Yeka are identified as the sub cities with the third highest vulnerable population in this context. The findings call for targeted public health interventions focused on areas with heightened vulnerability to urban overheating, including preparedness plans and community-based heat mitigation strategies. Public awareness campaigns are also required to educate residents about the health risks associated with urban overheating and the importance of adopting heat mitigation measures.

Climate change poses significant threats to human health, particularly in densely populated metropolitan areas like Patna, India. This study provides a comprehensive analysis of health vulnerabilities associated with climate change in Patna and identifies effective local strategies to enhance the city’s resilience. An interdisciplinary approach, integrating public health, environmental science, and urban planning, is employed. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), the study incorporates Land Use and Land Cover (LULC) analysis, Land Surface Temperature (LST) analysis, rainfall pattern analysis, and isochrone mapping. LULC analysis reveals changes in land use over the decades while LST analysis identifies temperature variations across the region. Rainfall pattern analysis explores shifts in precipitation, offering insights into flood risks and water management challenges. Isochrone mapping assesses access to critical services during extreme weather events. Recommendations include increasing green spaces, improving stormwater and sanitation management, and enhancing healthcare accessibility. The study highlights the city’s vulnerability to extreme weather, vector-borne diseases, and disproportionate effects on vulnerable populations such as the elderly, children, and low-income areas. By integrating GIS-based analyses into urban planning, this research presents a framework for climate resilience, offering actionable recommendations to inform policymaking, urban planning, and public health interventions, ultimately improving Patna’s capacity to adapt to climate change and safeguard its residents’ health.

In response to climate change and the COVID-19 pandemic, urban agriculture has become an important part of food and nutrition security in many cities globally. During the COVID-19 pandemic, food prices have increased due to blockages that have reduced the supply of food items in Addis Ababa. Urban agriculture not only offers the benefits of food security and economic gain but also improves ecosystem services—water quality improvement, microclimate amelioration, biodiversity enhancement, and waste and flood management—that positively impact public health. A detailed literature review and rapid field observations were used. This study portrays the diversified types of farms and species accustomed to urban farming in and around Addis Ababa, the role of urban agriculture during and post-COVID-19 pandemic times, and the opportunities and challenges that prevail. Despite some difficulties, sustainable urban agriculture allows for the attainment of the economic, social, and ecological sustainability dimensions. In doing so, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the inhabitants of Addis Ababa were encouraged to cultivate every open area in the home compounds, school, office compounds, and pre-urban farmlands to grow different types of vegetables, fruits, and cereals to adapt to the challenge. Urban agriculture needs to be encouraged to continue in the future in a more advanced way.

The impacts of climatic changes may pose threats to public health. The breeding and lifestyle of disease vectors such as mosquitoes are highly sensitive to climatic conditions. Assessing vulnerability and adaptation strategies can reshape programmes for climate-sensitive infectious diseases. The objectives of this paper are to understand the likely impacts of climatic changes on the spread of parasitic infections and vector-borne diseases in Nigeria and propose strategies to combat the current and future health-related impacts of climate change. The analysis in this paper was carried out using secondary data derived from several sources, which include the Nigerian Meteorological Agency and the Federal Ministry of Health. Findings indicate that Nigeria’s average atmospheric temperature rose by 1.11 °C, surpassing the global average of 0.74 °C. Rainfall increased by 245.72 mm, with regional variations. Northern Nigeria saw substantial rainfall increases compared to the south. Rising temperatures significantly correlated with increased malaria cases. Increase in rainfall had no major impact on the prevalence of malaria, but inversely affected the prevalence of filariasis and diarrhoea cases. Temperature did not significantly affect the prevalence of filariasis. The study concludes that mitigating the health impacts of climate change in Nigeria requires a multi-faceted approach. Key recommendations include increasing climate action to reduce health-related risks, investing in research to develop alternative strategies for parasite control, enhancing public education and awareness, and improving the capacity of local communities to prevent the breeding of disease vectors. Policymakers and stakeholders must prioritise these actions to safeguard public health in the face of ongoing and future climatic changes.

Climate change (CC) poses significant threats to human health, particularly in vulnerable communities like those in the Haut Sassandra region of Côte d'Ivoire. This study aims to assess the knowledge and perceptions of climate change and its potential human health impacts among these communities. A cross-sectional survey was conducted in 2022 using a structured questionnaire administered to 340 participants from four regions in Haut Sassandra region, with data analysed using Epi Info and SPSS software. The study revealed that 51.5% of participants had some knowledge of climate change, primarily acquired through various sources such as radio (21.8%), social media (9.7%), and other means (51.8%). A few (7.9%) acknowledged that climate change impacts human health, with some recognising the increased incidence of illnesses during extreme weather events. Statistical analysis indicated significant associations between knowledge of climate change and variables such as age, sex, and education level. Men were 1.58% times more likely to have knowledge about climate change when compared to women. The findings underscore the need for targeted educational interventions to enhance climate change awareness and its health implications in vulnerable communities like the region of Haut Sassandra, focusing on demographic groups identified as having lower levels of knowledge on the impact of climate change on human health.

This paper aims to analyse the implications between the declining and shrinking cities, urban vacant lands, urban land uses, green infrastructures, urban green areas, and their impacts on climate hazard change. The analysis departs from the basic assumption that urban vacant land sites and spaces have a negative connotation, but when supported by the appropriate policies and programmes of incentives, they can turn around and develop the essential green infrastructure to enable the mitigation of climate change hazards, economic growth, and socio-ecological development. The method used is the analytical-descriptive based on the theoretical and empirical literature review. It is concluded that land uses from vacant land to urban green innovation infrastructures and forest areas contribute to mitigating the dangers of climate change, potentially creating green environments in support of human health, individual wellbeing and improved quality of life for residents in the respective community.

Small Island Developing States (SIDS) experience some of the most devastating impacts of health effects of climate change, especially on mental health. Acute climate change events like hurricanes can cause displacement due to loss of habitable land and result in eco-anxiety, helplessness, worry and fear, which can significantly affect a population's mental health. Despite these severe mental health effects, major research gaps exist in research on the relationship between mental health and climate change in SIDS. To determine the current state of research conducted on mental health and climate change in SIDS an traditional literature review was undertaken. Five factors were identified which are linked to a climate change event’s impact on mental health: (1) the local context of culture, society, economy, and development; (2) the exposure’s spatial distribution; (3) the kind of meteorological event; (4) the length and intensity of the event; and (5) the expected severity and acuity of the associated effects on physical health and community well-being. This paper recommends greater use of multivariate analysis to address identified research gaps due to climate change in SIDS. This will allow for major gains in mental health by accounting for the myriad factors that vary within and between each SIDS to properly consider distinctive local contexts.

This study explores Urban Heat Island (UHI) dynamics by integrating Land Surface Temperature (LST) analysis with socio-economic vulnerability and public health assessments. UHI effects, exacerbated by urbanization and loss of green spaces, raise urban temperatures, impacting both environmental and human health. While prior studies focus primarily on temperature variations, this research addresses a gap by examining the interplay between UHI patterns, demographic vulnerabilities, and the health impacts of heatwaves. The research focuses on South Twenty-four Parganas, West Bengal, India, a region with diverse land use types. It seeks to identify the factors contributing to UHI, analyze how socioeconomic and infrastructural factors influence sensitivity to UHI, and assess the health impacts of UHI and heatwaves. Multiple thermal indices such as LST, Temperature Condition Index (TCI), and Relative LST were used to analyze UHI intensity, along with detailed assessments of vegetation (NDVI), waterbodies (NDWI), and built-up areas (NDBI). Primary survey data from vulnerable blue-collar workers further illuminated the socio-economic dimensions of UHI impacts. The findings demonstrate that environmental variables, in conjunction with socioeconomic differences, exacerbate vulnerabilities, particularly in densely populated places. Heat exposure significantly elevates health risks, including cardiovascular and respiratory issues. The study emphasizes the need to implement complete mitigation strategies involving urban design, public health initiatives, and community participation. This integrative approach addresses major gaps in UHI research. This study amalgamates UHI dynamics with socioeconomic and health evaluations to provide insights into UHI implications across varied landscapes, and additionally policy-driven suggestions for diminution.