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2018 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

17. Climate Change and Open Data: An Information Environmentalism Perspective

verfasst von : Robert Cunningham

Erschienen in: Intellectual Property and Clean Energy

Verlag: Springer Singapore

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Abstract

Increasingly, climate change mitigation will rely upon open data. In turn, open data flows from access to and use of the information commons. This chapter advances governance principles aimed at protecting and nurturing the information commons. These principles are distilled through the lens of information environmentalism, which encompasses the analytical frameworks of welfare economics, the commons, ecology, and public choice theory. Several emergent concepts are traversed, including informational national parks, information commons rights and the contemporary application of the public trust doctrine. Operationalising the governance principles advanced in this chapter is at once an intellectual and political project.

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Vorheriges Kapitel Energy Democracy, Renewables and the Paris Agreement

Nächstes Kapitel Open Government Data in an Age of Growing Hostility Towards Science

Burke et al. (2015, 235). Concerning the interface between climate change and intellectual property, see: Rimmer (2011).

Herrmann (2017), Hutchens (2017).

See, for example, Data.gov https://www.data.gov/climate/ (cited 16 August 2017). It is noteworthy that over six months after Trump took power, this initiative still existed on the USA government website.

Benkler (2016). For an example of a practical initiative with respect to open data and the information commons, see https://opendatacommons.org/about/ (cited 16 August 2017).

For early pioneering scholarship concerning the role of the information commons, see Litman (1990).

A more comprehensive overview of these four analytical frameworks can be found in Cunningham (2014). For a brief summary of this work, see Cunningham (2017b).

Cunningham (2014, 15).

Leopold (1949, p. 217).

Ibid.

For literature that links property with economic efficiency see, for example, Demsetz (1964, 1967), Manne (1975), and Posner (1977).

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2013).

Barker et al. (2016, pp. 211, 211–2).

Stone (1974, pp. 27–28).

Coase (1960, p. 31), Demsetz (1967).

Pigou (1952). See, for example, Baulmol and Oates (1975) (capturing the essence of the environmental economic focus on market failures that began with Pigou in the 1920s but was consolidated during the 1960s and 1970s). See also, Yandle (2001, p. 593).

Krien (2012, p. 71).

Coase (1960, p. 31), Demsetz (1967, p. 347).

Stern (2006).

Explanations of Emission Trading Schemes abound elsewhere so will not be dealt with here. See, by way of example, Ellerman (2007).

Cunningham (2014, Chap. 3).

Ostrom (1990), Rose (1986).

The Australian Oxford Pocket Dictionary (Oxford University Press, 1976). For further discussion concerning the commons see Lessig (2002, pp. 19–20), Rose (1994, pp. 105–6) (noting that US legal doctrine has strongly suggested that some kinds of properties should not be held exclusively in private hands but instead should be open to the public or at least subject to public right of use). See also Pasquale (2006).

Benkler (2003), 6.

Ibid.

Boyle (2003).

Hardin (1968).

Smith (1981). See also Welch (1983) (at 171: ‘the establishment of full property rights is necessary to avoid the inefficiency of overgrazing’).

Along with allocative efficiency, the tragedy of the commons issue is often married to negative externalities. See Smith (2002) (arguing at 457: ‘The Demsetzian account of the rise of property rights fits in well with the traditional story of the ‘tragedy of the commons’’).

Ostrom (1990).

Coase (1960, p. 31), Demsetz (1967).

Smith (2000, pp. 131–132).

Carr (1994, p. 185).

Cunningham (2010).

Carr (1994, p. 185). Aside from natural law theorists such as Pufendorf, the positive/negative distinction has also been relied upon by philosophers such as Isaiah Berlin with respect to freedom. See Berlin (1958).

Chander and Sunder (2004, p. 1356), especially footnote 133. This perspective also accords with the ‘positive community’ and ‘negative community’ descriptions discussed by Drahos (1996, pp. 45–46, 57–59, 65–66, 68).

Ibid.

Atteberry (2010, p. 329). See also Liang (2010, pp. 369–370).

Drahos (2011, pp. 33–34).

Odum and Barrett (2004, 3).

Cunningham (2014, 90–92).

Carter (1999, 66–67).

Margaret Thatcher’s comment to Woman’s Own magazine on 31 October 1987 is emblematic: ‘there is no such thing as society’.

Carter (1999, 66–67).

Ibid. at 82.

Carson (1962) [1968], 27.

Drahos (1996, p. 201) (proprietarianism is not a theory so much as ‘a creed and an attitude which inclines its holders towards a property fundamentalism’).

Buchanan and Tullock (1962). See also Chomsky and Herman (1988), (arguing that the media radically distorts the flow of information at the behest of private commercial interests).

Buchanan and Tullock (1962), Posner (1982), Farina (2005), in Backhaus (ed) (2005), 190.

See, for example, the Australian Constitution 1901.

Cunningham (2010), 1.

Ibid.

Cunningham (2014, Chap. 10).

Ibid.

Smith (1786) [1904].

As a moral philosopher, Adam Smith was profoundly interested in matters of ethics (and religion). In this regard, the reference to the ‘invisible hand’ in the eighteenth century was likely to have been a reference to the ‘hand of providence’. This had religious, or at the very least ethical, connotations. See Baumol and Wilson (2001, pp. 81–82).

Smith (1786) [1904], cited in Hope (2008, p. 132, footnote 52).

Pigou (1952).

Benkler (2006, p. 4).

Ibid. See also Benkler (2002, p. 383). See also, Schultz and Urban (2012, p. 15), Chesbrough (2003, 2006), Shirky (2008a, b).

See, for example, Drahos (1996, p. 15) (referring to China as an example of a society that achieved spectacular scientific and innovative outcomes without an IPR system).

Emphasis added. Benkler (2010 p. 231).

Boyle (1997, p. 108).

The ‘information environment’ can be thought of as those processes and procedures relating to the production, consumption, communication, distribution and diffusion of information. The ‘physical environment’ can be simply thought of as the surroundings or conditions in which an animal, plant or human lives.

The ‘information commons’ embodies information that can be accessed and used by the public. For a nuanced perspective of the information commons, see: Cunningham (2010).

For a thought experiment concerning what this type of research might look like, see: Cunningham (2017).

See, for example, Greenleaf and Lindsay (2018).

This argument was initially stated in The Clothworkers of Ipswich, 78 Eng Rep (1615) at 148 cited in Walterscheid (1999/2000, pp. 323–324, footnote 29). But see also Stewart v Abend 495 US 207, 228 (1990) cited in Rimmer (2007, p. 29, footnote 35). See also, Twentieth Century Music Corp. v Aiken, 422 US 151, 156, 186 USPQ (BNA) 65, 67 (1975) (stating that the ultimate aim of copyright is to ‘stimulate artistic creativity for the general public good’); and Harrison (2005, p. 3, footnote 4).

Pamela Samuelson quoted in Bannerman (2009, p. 168). See also Wirten (2008, p. 6) (referring to Pamela Samuelson’s ‘thirteen public domains’).

By way of grounding the ICR notion, patent oppositions systems reflected in patent legislation of many countries, as exemplified by section 25 of the Indian Patent Act, provides one tangible example of how ICRs might be operationalised in practice. To create a notion of ‘essential intellectual property’ in parallel with the ‘essential facilities’ doctrine inherent within competition law provides another practical alternative when seeking to realise ICRs.

Pepper (1986, pp. 88–89).

Stone (1972).

Sax (1969, pp. 478–489), Sun (2009, p. 8), Ryan (2004, p. 348) [pointing out that Sax’s article is one of the most cited law-review articles of all time—referring to Shapiro (1985, pp. 1551–53)].

The Institutes of Justinian bk, 2, tit. 1, pts. 1–6, at 65 (J Thomas trans., 1975).

Bloch (1966, p. 183).

Ibid.

Illinois Central Railroad v Illinois, 146 US 387 (1892).

The case of Arnold v Mundy 6 NJL 1, 71–78 (1821) ‘marks the origin of the fiduciary aspect of public trust doctrine’. See also State v Cleveland & Pittsburgh R.R., 94 Ohio St. 61, 80 113 NE 677, 682 (1916).

In Re Complaint of Steuart Transp. Co, 495 F Supp 38, 40 (1980); National Audubon Society v Superior Court, 33 Cal. 3d 419, 441 (Cal. 1983).

National Audubon Society v Superior Court, 33 Cal. 3d 419, 441 (Cal. 1983).

Araiza (1997, p. 398); Ryan (2000), 700.

Illinois Central Railroad v Illinois, 146 US 387 (1892) at 452–453.

Ibid. at 491–565.

It is unclear whether the ‘nothing quite as practical as good theory’ notion should be traced to Kurt Lewin (the founder of social psychology) as per Lewin (1945, p. 129), or, in the alternate, John Dewey in accordance with his general pragmatist theories [e.g. Dewey (1938, pp. 12–22)].

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Titel: Climate Change and Open Data: An Information Environmentalism Perspective
verfasst von: Robert Cunningham
Verlag: Springer Singapore
Buch: Intellectual Property and Clean Energy
Print ISBN: 978-981-13-2154-2

Electronic ISBN: 978-981-13-2155-9

Copyright-Jahr: 2018
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-2155-9_17

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