Skip to main content

2015 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

16. Combinatorial Methods for Constructing Credit Risk Ratings

verfasst von : Alexander Kogan, Miguel A. Lejeune

Erschienen in: Handbook of Financial Econometrics and Statistics

Verlag: Springer New York

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config
loading …

Abstract

This study uses a novel method, the Logical Analysis of Data (LAD), to reverse engineer and construct credit risk ratings which represent the creditworthiness of financial institutions and countries. LAD is a data mining method based on combinatorics, optimization, and Boolean logic that utilizes combinatorial search techniques to discover various combinations of attribute values that are characteristic of the positive or negative character of observations. The proposed methodology is applicable in the general case of inferring an objective rating system from archival data, given that the rated objects are characterized by vectors of attributes taking numerical or ordinal values. The proposed approaches are shown to generate transparent, consistent, self-contained, and predictive credit risk rating models, closely approximating the risk ratings provided by some of the major rating agencies. The scope of applicability of the proposed method extends beyond the rating problems discussed in this study and can be used in many other contexts where ratings are relevant.
We use multiple linear regression to derive the logical rating scores.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 102.000 Bücher
  • über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Automobil + Motoren
  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
  • Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
  • Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

  • über 67.000 Bücher
  • über 340 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

  • Bauwesen + Immobilien
  • Business IT + Informatik
  • Finance + Banking
  • Management + Führung
  • Marketing + Vertrieb
  • Versicherung + Risiko




Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Anhänge
Nur mit Berechtigung zugänglich
Fußnoten
1
Wall Street Letter. 2006. CFA To Senate: Follow Our Lead On Credit Rating.
 
2
The Economist, July 15, 1995, 62.
 
3
The presentation in this section is partially based on Hammer et al. (2006).
 
4
The presentation in this section is based on Hammer et al. (2012).
 
5
The presentation in this section is based on Hammer et al. (2006, 2012).
 
Literatur
Zurück zum Zitat Afonso, A. (2003). Understanding the determinants of sovereign debt ratings: Evidence for the two leading agencies. Journal of Economics and Finance, 27(1), 56–74.CrossRef Afonso, A. (2003). Understanding the determinants of sovereign debt ratings: Evidence for the two leading agencies. Journal of Economics and Finance, 27(1), 56–74.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Alexe, S. (2002). Datascope – A new tool for logical analysis of data. DIMACS Mixer Series. DIMACS, Rutgers University. Alexe, S. (2002). Datascope – A new tool for logical analysis of data. DIMACS Mixer Series. DIMACS, Rutgers University.
Zurück zum Zitat Alexe, G., Alexe, S., Bonates, T. O., & Kogan, A. (2007). Logical analysis of data – The vision of Peter L. Hammer. Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence, 49, 265–312.CrossRef Alexe, G., Alexe, S., Bonates, T. O., & Kogan, A. (2007). Logical analysis of data – The vision of Peter L. Hammer. Annals of Mathematics and Artificial Intelligence, 49, 265–312.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Altman, E. I., & Rijken, H. A. (2004). How rating agencies achieve rating stability. Journal of Banking and Finance, 28, 2679–2714.CrossRef Altman, E. I., & Rijken, H. A. (2004). How rating agencies achieve rating stability. Journal of Banking and Finance, 28, 2679–2714.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Barr, R. S., & Siems, T. F. (1994). Predicting bank failure using DEA to quantify management quality. Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Financial Industry Studies, 1, 1–31. Barr, R. S., & Siems, T. F. (1994). Predicting bank failure using DEA to quantify management quality. Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Financial Industry Studies, 1, 1–31.
Zurück zum Zitat Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. (2004). Bank failures in mature economies (Working Paper 13). Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. (2004). Bank failures in mature economies (Working Paper 13).
Zurück zum Zitat Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. (2006). International convergence of capital measurement and capital standards: A revised framework (Basel II). Basel Committee on Banking Supervision. (2006). International convergence of capital measurement and capital standards: A revised framework (Basel II).
Zurück zum Zitat Bhatia, A.V. (2002). Sovereign credit risk ratings: An evaluation (IMF Working Paper WP/03/170). Bhatia, A.V. (2002). Sovereign credit risk ratings: An evaluation (IMF Working Paper WP/03/170).
Zurück zum Zitat Boros, E., Hammer, P. L., Ibaraki, T., & Kogan, A. (1997). Logical analysis of numerical data. Mathematical Programming, 79, 163–190. Boros, E., Hammer, P. L., Ibaraki, T., & Kogan, A. (1997). Logical analysis of numerical data. Mathematical Programming, 79, 163–190.
Zurück zum Zitat Boros, E., Hammer, P. L., Ibaraki, T., Kogan, A., Mayoraz, E., & Muchnik, I. (2000). An implementation of logical analysis of data. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 12(2), 292–306.CrossRef Boros, E., Hammer, P. L., Ibaraki, T., Kogan, A., Mayoraz, E., & Muchnik, I. (2000). An implementation of logical analysis of data. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering, 12(2), 292–306.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Bouchet, M. H., Clark, E., & Groslambert, B. (2003). Country risk assessment: A guide to global investment strategy. Chichester: Wiley. Bouchet, M. H., Clark, E., & Groslambert, B. (2003). Country risk assessment: A guide to global investment strategy. Chichester: Wiley.
Zurück zum Zitat Bourke, P., & Shanmugam, B. (1990). An introduction to bank lending (Addison-Wesley Business Series). Sydney: Addison-Wesley. Bourke, P., & Shanmugam, B. (1990). An introduction to bank lending (Addison-Wesley Business Series). Sydney: Addison-Wesley.
Zurück zum Zitat Brewer, T. L., & Rivoli, P. (1990). Politics and perceived country creditworthiness in international banking. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 22, 357–369.CrossRef Brewer, T. L., & Rivoli, P. (1990). Politics and perceived country creditworthiness in international banking. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 22, 357–369.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Brewer, T. L., & Rivoli, P. (1997). Political instability and country risk. Global Finance Journal, 8(2), 309–321.CrossRef Brewer, T. L., & Rivoli, P. (1997). Political instability and country risk. Global Finance Journal, 8(2), 309–321.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Cantor, R., & Packer, F. (1996). Determinants and impact of sovereign credit ratings. FRBNY Economic Policy Review, 2, 37–53. Cantor, R., & Packer, F. (1996). Determinants and impact of sovereign credit ratings. FRBNY Economic Policy Review, 2, 37–53.
Zurück zum Zitat Choo E.U., & Wedley W.C., (2004). A Common Framework for Deriving Preference Values from Pairwise Comparison Matrices. Computers and Operational Research 31, 893–908.CrossRef Choo E.U., & Wedley W.C., (2004). A Common Framework for Deriving Preference Values from Pairwise Comparison Matrices. Computers and Operational Research 31, 893–908.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Citron, J. T., & Neckelburg, G. (1987). Country risk and political instability. Journal of Development Economics, 25, 385–395.CrossRef Citron, J. T., & Neckelburg, G. (1987). Country risk and political instability. Journal of Development Economics, 25, 385–395.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Crama, Y., Hammer, P. L., & Ibaraki, T. (1988). Cause-effect relationships and partially defined boolean functions. Annals of Operations Research, 16, 299–326.CrossRef Crama, Y., Hammer, P. L., & Ibaraki, T. (1988). Cause-effect relationships and partially defined boolean functions. Annals of Operations Research, 16, 299–326.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Curry, T., & Shibut, L. (2000). The Cost of the Savings and Loan Crisis: Truth and Consequences. FDIC Banking Review, 2(2), 26–35. Curry, T., & Shibut, L. (2000). The Cost of the Savings and Loan Crisis: Truth and Consequences. FDIC Banking Review, 2(2), 26–35.
Zurück zum Zitat Czyzyk, J., Mesnier, M. P., & Moré, J. J. (1998). The NEOS server. IEEE Computer Science Engineering, 5(3), 68–75.CrossRef Czyzyk, J., Mesnier, M. P., & Moré, J. J. (1998). The NEOS server. IEEE Computer Science Engineering, 5(3), 68–75.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat de Servigny, A., & Renault, O. (2004). Measuring and managing credit risk. New York: McGraw-Hill. de Servigny, A., & Renault, O. (2004). Measuring and managing credit risk. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Zurück zum Zitat Eliasson, A. (2002). Sovereign credit ratings (Working Papers 02-1). Deutsche Bank. Eliasson, A. (2002). Sovereign credit ratings (Working Papers 02-1). Deutsche Bank.
Zurück zum Zitat Ferri, G., Liu, L.-G., & Stiglitz, J. (1999). The procyclical role of rating agencies: Evidence from the east asian crisis. Economic Notes, 3, 335–355.CrossRef Ferri, G., Liu, L.-G., & Stiglitz, J. (1999). The procyclical role of rating agencies: Evidence from the east asian crisis. Economic Notes, 3, 335–355.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Fitch Ratings. (2001). Fitch simplifies bank rating scales. Technical Report. Fitch Ratings. (2001). Fitch simplifies bank rating scales. Technical Report.
Zurück zum Zitat Fitch Ratings. (2006). The role of support and joint probability analysis in bank ratings. Fitch Special Report. Fitch Ratings. (2006). The role of support and joint probability analysis in bank ratings. Fitch Special Report.
Zurück zum Zitat Galindo, J., & Tamayo, P. (2000). Credit risk assessment using statistical and machine learning/basic methodology and risk modeling applications. Computational Economics, 15, 107–143.CrossRef Galindo, J., & Tamayo, P. (2000). Credit risk assessment using statistical and machine learning/basic methodology and risk modeling applications. Computational Economics, 15, 107–143.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Gehrlein, W. V., & Lepelley, D. (1998). The condorcet efficiency of approval voting and the probability of electing the condorcet loser. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 29, 271–283.CrossRef Gehrlein, W. V., & Lepelley, D. (1998). The condorcet efficiency of approval voting and the probability of electing the condorcet loser. Journal of Mathematical Economics, 29, 271–283.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Hammer, P. L. (1986). Partially defined boolean functions and cause-effect relationships. International conference on multi-attribute decision making via OR-based expert systems. Passau: University of Passau. Hammer, P. L. (1986). Partially defined boolean functions and cause-effect relationships. International conference on multi-attribute decision making via OR-based expert systems. Passau: University of Passau.
Zurück zum Zitat Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2006). Modeling country risk ratings using partial orders. European Journal of Operational Research, 175(2), 836–859.CrossRef Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2006). Modeling country risk ratings using partial orders. European Journal of Operational Research, 175(2), 836–859.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2011). Reverse-engineering country risk ratings: Combinatorial non-recursive model. Annals of Operations Research, 188, 185–213.CrossRef Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2011). Reverse-engineering country risk ratings: Combinatorial non-recursive model. Annals of Operations Research, 188, 185–213.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2012). A logical analysis of banks’ financial strength ratings. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), 7808–7821.CrossRef Hammer, P. L., Kogan, A., & Lejeune, M. A. (2012). A logical analysis of banks’ financial strength ratings. Expert Systems with Applications, 39(9), 7808–7821.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Haque, N. U., Kumar, M. S., Mark, N., & Mathieson, D. (1996). The economic content of indicators of developing country creditworthiness. International Monetary Fund Working Paper, 43(4), 688–724.CrossRef Haque, N. U., Kumar, M. S., Mark, N., & Mathieson, D. (1996). The economic content of indicators of developing country creditworthiness. International Monetary Fund Working Paper, 43(4), 688–724.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Haque, N. U., Kumar, M. S., Mark, N., & Mathieson, D. (1998). The relative importance of political and economic variables in creditworthiness ratings. International Monetary Fund Working Paper, 46, 1–13. Haque, N. U., Kumar, M. S., Mark, N., & Mathieson, D. (1998). The relative importance of political and economic variables in creditworthiness ratings. International Monetary Fund Working Paper, 46, 1–13.
Zurück zum Zitat Hu, Y.-T., Kiesel, R., & Perraudin, W. (2002). The estimation of transition matrices for sovereign credit ratings. Journal of Banking and Finance, 26(7), 1383–1406.CrossRef Hu, Y.-T., Kiesel, R., & Perraudin, W. (2002). The estimation of transition matrices for sovereign credit ratings. Journal of Banking and Finance, 26(7), 1383–1406.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Huang, Z., Chen, H., Hsu, C.-J., Chen, W.-H., & Wu, S. (2004). Credit rating analysis with support vector machines and neural networks: A market comparative study. Decision Support Systems, 37, 543–558.CrossRef Huang, Z., Chen, H., Hsu, C.-J., Chen, W.-H., & Wu, S. (2004). Credit rating analysis with support vector machines and neural networks: A market comparative study. Decision Support Systems, 37, 543–558.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Jain, K., Duin, R., & Mayo, J. (2000). Statistical pattern recognition: A review. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22, 4–37.CrossRef Jain, K., Duin, R., & Mayo, J. (2000). Statistical pattern recognition: A review. IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence, 22, 4–37.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kaminsky, G., & Schmukler, S. L. (2002). Emerging market instability: Do sovereign ratings affect country risk and stock returns? World Bank Economic Review, 16, 171–195.CrossRef Kaminsky, G., & Schmukler, S. L. (2002). Emerging market instability: Do sovereign ratings affect country risk and stock returns? World Bank Economic Review, 16, 171–195.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Kaufmann, D., Kraay A., & Zoido-Lobaton, P. (1999a). Aggregating governance indicators. (World Bank Policy Research Department Working Paper, 2195). Kaufmann, D., Kraay A., & Zoido-Lobaton, P. (1999a). Aggregating governance indicators. (World Bank Policy Research Department Working Paper, 2195).
Zurück zum Zitat Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Zoido-Lobaton, P. (1999b). Governance matters (World Bank Policy Research Department Working Paper, 2196). Kaufmann, D., Kraay, A., & Zoido-Lobaton, P. (1999b). Governance matters (World Bank Policy Research Department Working Paper, 2196).
Zurück zum Zitat Kunczik, M. (2001). Globalization: News media, images of nations and the flow of international capital with special reference to the role of rating agencies. Paper presented at the IAMCR Conference, Singapore, pp. 1–49. Kunczik, M. (2001). Globalization: News media, images of nations and the flow of international capital with special reference to the role of rating agencies. Paper presented at the IAMCR Conference, Singapore, pp. 1–49.
Zurück zum Zitat Larrain, G., Reisen, H., & von Maltzan, J. (1997). Emerging market risk and sovereign credit ratings (pp. 1–30). OECD Development Centre Working Papers 124, OECD Publishing. Larrain, G., Reisen, H., & von Maltzan, J. (1997). Emerging market risk and sovereign credit ratings (pp. 1–30). OECD Development Centre Working Papers 124, OECD Publishing.
Zurück zum Zitat Moody’s. (2006). Bank financial strength ratings: Revised methodology. Moody’s Global Credit Research Report. Moody’s. (2006). Bank financial strength ratings: Revised methodology. Moody’s Global Credit Research Report.
Zurück zum Zitat Mora, N. (2006). Sovereign credit ratings: Guilty beyond reasonable doubt? Journal of Banking and Finance, 30(7), 2041–2062.CrossRef Mora, N. (2006). Sovereign credit ratings: Guilty beyond reasonable doubt? Journal of Banking and Finance, 30(7), 2041–2062.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Morgan, D. P. (2002). Rating banks: Risk and uncertainty in an opaque industry. The American Economic Review, 92(4), 874–888.CrossRef Morgan, D. P. (2002). Rating banks: Risk and uncertainty in an opaque industry. The American Economic Review, 92(4), 874–888.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Ng, W.-Y., Choi, K.-W., & Shum, K.-H. (1996). Arbitrated matching: Formulation and protocol. European Journal of Operational Research, 88(2), 348–357.CrossRef Ng, W.-Y., Choi, K.-W., & Shum, K.-H. (1996). Arbitrated matching: Formulation and protocol. European Journal of Operational Research, 88(2), 348–357.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Poon, W. P. H., Firth, M., & Fung, H.-G. (1999). A multivariate analysis of the determinants of Moody’s bank financial strength ratings. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions & Money, 9(3), 267–283.CrossRef Poon, W. P. H., Firth, M., & Fung, H.-G. (1999). A multivariate analysis of the determinants of Moody’s bank financial strength ratings. Journal of International Financial Markets, Institutions & Money, 9(3), 267–283.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Quenouille, M. (1949). Approximate tests of correlation in time series. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 11, 18–84. Quenouille, M. (1949). Approximate tests of correlation in time series. Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, 11, 18–84.
Zurück zum Zitat Reinhart, C. M. (2002). Default, currency crises, and sovereign credit ratings. World Bank Economic Review, 16, 151–170.CrossRef Reinhart, C. M. (2002). Default, currency crises, and sovereign credit ratings. World Bank Economic Review, 16, 151–170.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Sarkar, S., & Sriram, R. S. (2001). Bayesian models for early warning of bank failures. Management Science, 47(11), 1457–1475.CrossRef Sarkar, S., & Sriram, R. S. (2001). Bayesian models for early warning of bank failures. Management Science, 47(11), 1457–1475.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Sobehart, J. R., Keenan, S. C., & Stein, R. M. (2000). Benchmarking quantitative default risk models: A validation methodology. New York: Moody’s Investors Service. Sobehart, J. R., Keenan, S. C., & Stein, R. M. (2000). Benchmarking quantitative default risk models: A validation methodology. New York: Moody’s Investors Service.
Zurück zum Zitat Stein, R. M. (2002). Benchmarking default prediction models: Pitfalls and remedies in model validation. New York: Moody’s KMV. Stein, R. M. (2002). Benchmarking default prediction models: Pitfalls and remedies in model validation. New York: Moody’s KMV.
Zurück zum Zitat Sy, A. N. R. (2004). Rating the rating agencies: Anticipating currency crises or debt crises? Journal of Banking and Finance, 28(11), 2845–2867.CrossRef Sy, A. N. R. (2004). Rating the rating agencies: Anticipating currency crises or debt crises? Journal of Banking and Finance, 28(11), 2845–2867.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Tarjan, R. E. (1972). Depth-first search and linear graph algorithms. SIAM Journal on Computing, 1, 146–160.CrossRef Tarjan, R. E. (1972). Depth-first search and linear graph algorithms. SIAM Journal on Computing, 1, 146–160.CrossRef
Zurück zum Zitat Treacy, W. F., & Carey, M. S. (2000). Credit risk rating systems at large US banks. Journal of Banking & Finance, 24(1–2), 167–201.CrossRef Treacy, W. F., & Carey, M. S. (2000). Credit risk rating systems at large US banks. Journal of Banking & Finance, 24(1–2), 167–201.CrossRef
Metadaten
Titel
Combinatorial Methods for Constructing Credit Risk Ratings
verfasst von
Alexander Kogan
Miguel A. Lejeune
Copyright-Jahr
2015
Verlag
Springer New York
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-7750-1_16