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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

6. Comparative Constitutional Politics in the Chinese Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau

verfasst von : Eric C. Ip

Erschienen in: European Yearbook of Constitutional Law 2020

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

Hong Kong and Macau are cosmopolitan former Western European dependencies in East Asia that became autonomous Special Administrative Regions of the People’s Republic of China toward the end of the twentieth century. The Basic Law and the Lei Básica, Hong Kong’s and Macau’s contemporary constitutional charters, were designed to serve as jurisdictional firewalls that prevent the dissolution of the minuscule Regions into the far more powerful and populous Chinese mainland, whose Leninist polity officially rejects almost every fundamental value shared by English and Portuguese constitutional law that has been indigenised into the Regions. Notwithstanding the striking resemblance of the Basic Law and the Lei Básica, constitutional politics in Hong Kong and Macau could not be more different. This chapter identifies the root of this discrepancy not just in history and political culture, but also in two oft-overlooked differences between the charters in relation to electoral reform and the executive-legislative relationship. Both Regions, for all their autonomy, are not sovereign states; their relationship with mainland China critically shapes their divergent trajectories of constitutional development. The chapter closes by explaining why assimilating the Regions into the mainland, turning them into little more than two of China’s over six hundred cities, is neither supported by the law, nor in the ultimate political interests of the People’s Republic.

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Fußnoten
1
Articles 3(1) & 3(2) of the Joint Declaration of the Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the Government of the People’s Republic of China on the Question of Hong Kong of 1984 (hereinafter “Sino-British Joint Declaration”).
 
2
Ibid., Article 3(3).
 
3
Ibid., Article 3(4).
 
4
Ibid., Article 3(3).
 
5
Ibid., Article 3(5).
 
6
Ibid., Article 3(12).
 
7
Joint Declaration of the Government of the People’s Republic of China and the Government of the Republic of Portugal on the Question of Macao of 1987.
 
8
Chen and Lo 2018, p. 231.
 
9
Yeandle and Wardle 2019.
 
10
Fok 2001, p. 13.
 
11
Lo 2019, p. 521.
 
12
Article 3(2) of the Sino-British Joint Declaration; Article 3(2) of the Sino-Portuguese Joint Declaration.
 
13
Ibid.
 
14
Chapter III: Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Residents of the Hong Kong Basic Law and Chapter III: Fundamental Rights and Duties of the Residents of the Lei Básica de Macau.
 
15
Gordon 2013.
 
16
Zhang and Xiao 2015, p. 486.
 
17
Bush 2016, p. 48.
 
18
Wong 2015, p. 69.
 
19
Hao et al. 2017, p. 216.
 
20
Ieong 2017, p. 506.
 
21
Ip 2019a, p. 103.
 
22
Cheng 2016, p. 384.
 
23
Wong 2014, p. 201.
 
24
Rao and Wang 2007, p. 343.
 
25
Lam 2008, p. 23.
 
26
Yu 2011, p. 57.
 
27
Lo 2012, p. 23.
 
28
Lemos and Robalo 2019, p. 748.
 
29
Mendes 2014, p. 225.
 
30
Chang 1988, p. 255–56.
 
31
Cardinal 2013, p. 385.
 
32
Hauss and Haussman 2013, p. 311.
 
33
Ip 2019b, p. 54.
 
34
Tang 1994, p. 317.
 
35
Ghai 2013, p. 320; Crawford 2006, p. 249.
 
36
Fok 2001, p. 21.
 
37
Partlett and Ip 2016, p. 485.
 
38
Davis 2007, p. 78.
 
39
Xi 2017, p. 472.
 
40
But consider the ancient Chinese dynasties of Shang (1600–1047 BC), and Zhou (1046–256 BC) that practiced various forms of decentralized confederalism. See Zhao 2015, p. 51.
 
41
Hendry and Dickson 2018, p. 10–13.
 
42
Cardinal 2013, p. 408.
 
43
Loh 2018, p. 325.
 
44
Preamble of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Preamble of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
45
Davis 1997, p. 159.
 
46
Article 4 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 4 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
47
Article 25 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 25 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
48
Article 64 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 65 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
49
Article 35(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 36(3) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
50
Article 2 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 2 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
51
Young 2009, p. 685.
 
52
Article 28(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law.
 
53
Ibid., Article 87(2).
 
54
Ibid., Article 86.
 
55
Ibid., Article 35(1).
 
56
Article 25 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
57
Ibid. Article 28(4).
 
58
Ibid., Article 30(1).
 
59
Ibid Article 30(2).
 
60
Ibid., Article 38(2).
 
61
Ibid., Article 38(3).
 
62
Ibid Article 42..
 
63
Ibid., Article 24(2).
 
64
Ghai 2000, p. 196.
 
65
Lee and Yeung 2017, p. 122.
 
66
Lo 1995, p. 242.
 
67
Annex I of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Annex I of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
68
Article 45(1) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 47(1) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
69
Young and Cullen 2010, p. 91.
 
70
Article 43 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 45 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
71
Scott 2010, p. 29.
 
72
Article 49 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 51 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
73
Article 48(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(3) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
74
Article 48(5) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(6) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
75
Article 48(6) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(9) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
76
Article 48(9) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(13) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
77
Article 55 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(8) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
78
Article 48(7) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(11) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
79
Article 48(12) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(17) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
80
Article 48(13) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(18) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
81
Article 74 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 75 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
82
Article 48(11) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(15) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
83
Article 55(1) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 57(1) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
84
Article 56(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 58(2) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
85
Article 50(5) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
86
Ibid., Article 50(16).
 
87
Ma 2007.
 
88
As of March 2018, 35 seats in the Legislative Council are constituted through universal suffrage in Geographical Constituencies elections, whilst another 35 seats are constituted through Functional Constituencies elections. Yap 2017, p. 46.
 
89
Article 48(9) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 50(13) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
90
Article 62(3) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 64(3) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
91
Article 151 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 136 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
92
Article 152(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 137 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
93
Article 156 of the Basic Law; Art 141 of the Lei Básica.
 
94
Article 153 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 138 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
95
Weng 1997, p. 43.
 
96
Ip 2016a, 953–68.
 
97
Wong 2007, p. 41.
 
98
Krebs 2000.
 
99
Hao and Wang 2011, p. 2.
 
100
Gan 2010.
 
101
Wang 2019, p. 330; Ghai 1993, p. 350.
 
102
Article 42 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 44 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
103
Article 53 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China of 1982 (Last Amended in 2018).
 
104
Article 54 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China of 1982 (Last Amended in 2018).
 
105
Article 55 of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China of 1982 (Last Amended in 2018).
 
106
Mo 2009, p. 182.
 
107
Osakwe 1979, p. 1368.
 
108
Article 67(7) of the Constitution of the People’s Republic of China of 1982 (Last Amended in 2018).
 
109
Supreme People’s Court. Notice on Issuing the Specifications for Preparing Civil Judgments by the People’s Courts and the Style of Civil Litigation, Document No 211 of 2016.
 
110
Xi 2018.
 
111
Article 158(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 143(2) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
112
Article 158(3) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 143(3) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
113
Article 158(1) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 143(1) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
114
Article 2 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 2 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
115
Article 64 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 65 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
116
Article 35(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 36(2) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
117
Article 85 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
118
Ibid., Article 83.
 
119
Ip 2013.
 
120
In the Hong Kong Court of Final Appeal, Ng Ka Ling v Director of Immigration, judgement of 26 February 1999, 2 HKCFAR 4, at 25, the Court declared that: “Like other constitutions, [the Basic Law] distributes and delimits powers, as well as providing for fundamental rights and freedoms. As with other constitutions, laws which are inconsistent with the Basic Law are of no effect and are invalid. Under it, the courts of the Region have independent judicial power within the high degree of autonomy conferred on the Region. It is for the courts of the Region to determine questions of inconsistency and invalidity when they arise. It is therefore for the courts of the Region to determine whether an act of the National People’s Congress or its Standing Committee is inconsistent with the Basic Law, subject of course to the provisions of the Basic Law itself”. In Case 28/2006, at 31, Macau’s Tribunal de Última Instância decided: “If a court shall interpret the Lei Básica in adjudicating a case, and is certain that it could reach a conclusion that certain legal provisions or administrative regulations are in contradiction with the Lei Básica, under this circumstance, it must enforce the provisions of Article 11 of the Lei Básica: therefore, it shall not apply those regulations that contradict the provisions or general principles of the Lei Básica, without prejudice to Article 143 of that Law”.
 
121
Lemos 2018, p. 316.
 
122
Anderlini 2019.
 
123
Hao et al. 2017, p. 197.
 
124
Ghai 2000, p. 197.
 
125
Wong 2009, p. 51.
 
126
Chen 2007, p. 658.
 
127
Lee 2016, p. 99.
 
128
Chen 2009, p. 758.
 
129
Article 45(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990 states that: “The method for selecting the Chief Executive shall be specified in the light of the actual situation in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and in accordance with the principle of gradual and orderly progress. The ultimate aim is the selection of the Chief Executive by universal suffrage upon nomination by a broadly representative nominating committee in accordance with democratic procedures”. Article 68(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990 states that: “The method for forming the Legislative Council shall be specified in the light of the actual situation in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region and in accordance with the principle of gradual and orderly progress. The ultimate aim is the election of all the members of the Legislative Council by universal suffrage”.
 
130
Deng 1987.
 
131
Chou 2010, p. 226.
 
132
Chou 2013, p. 39.
 
133
Lam 2018, p. 99.
 
134
Chan and Chan 2017, p. 137.
 
135
Davis 2015, p. 295.
 
136
Sing and Tang 2012, p. 147.
 
137
Article 23 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
138
Article 27 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
139
Chen 2017, p. 131.
 
140
Fong 2017b, p. 527.
 
141
Chen 2019bb, p. 45.
 
142
Diamond 2008, p. 5.
 
143
Jones 2015, p. 234.
 
144
Kwong and Yew 2013, p. 63.
 
145
Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China 2014.
 
146
Article 45(2) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
147
Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on Issues Relating to the Selection of the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region by Universal Suffrage and on the Method for Forming the Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in the Year 2016 of 2014.
 
148
Explanations on the Draft Decision of the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress on Issues Relating to the Selection of the Chief Executive of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region by Universal Suffrage and on the Method for Forming the Legislative Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region in the Year 2016 of 2014.
 
149
Ip 2019a, p. 187.
 
150
Chen 2017, p. 131.
 
151
Tse 2015, p. 110–11.
 
152
Minzer 2018, p. 32.
 
153
Hui 2015.
 
154
Ip 2019b, p. 147.
 
155
Yuen 2018.
 
156
Ip 2016b, p. 76.
 
157
Lim and Ping 2015, p. 147.
 
158
Lee 2017, p. 102.
 
159
Chan and Chan 2017, p. 142.
 
160
Interpretation of Article 104 of the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of 2016.
 
161
Section 2(4) of the Interpretation of Article 104 of the Basic Law of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China by the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress of 2016.
 
162
[2017] 1 HKLRD 460; [2017] 4 HKLRD 115.
 
163
[2017] 1 HKLRD 460.
 
164
[2017] 4 HKLRD 115.
 
165
Kwong 2018.
 
166
Fong 2017a, p. 782.
 
167
Dapiran 2017, p. 106.
 
168
Chen 2019a.
 
169
Purbrick 2019, p 16.
 
170
Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party 2019.
 
171
Section 7, Annex I and Section 3, Annex II of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
172
Article 68 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
173
Article 68(2) of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
174
Cardinal 2013, p. 409.
 
175
Tso 2012, p. 20.
 
176
Lam 2010.
 
177
Sheng 2016, p. 525.
 
178
Lo 2001, p. 96.
 
179
Kwong 2017, p. 127.
 
180
Zheng and Wan 2014, p. 137.
 
181
Ibid., p. 146.
 
182
Ibid., p. 158.
 
183
Ibid., p. 187.
 
184
Bush 2016, p. 224.
 
185
Wong 2017, p. 59.
 
186
Zheng and Wan 2014, p. 135.
 
187
Lam 2011, p. 38.
 
188
Chou 2013, p. 42.
 
189
Lo 2019, p. 455.
 
190
Wong 2017, p. 149.
 
191
Fong 2018, p. 53.
 
192
Lee and Yeung 2017, p. 123 (2017).
 
193
Zhang 2009, p. 322–23.
 
194
Wong 2017, p. 152.
 
195
Lau 2017, p. 85.
 
196
Ibid., p. 152.
 
197
Ibid., p. 151.
 
198
Wong 2017, p. 151.
 
199
Article 56(1) of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990.
 
200
Wong 2017, p. 149.
 
201
Fong 2018, p. 54–55.
 
202
Ibid., p. 46.
 
203
Ibid., p. 55.
 
204
Ma 2018, p. 37.
 
205
Young 2015, p. 502–03.
 
206
Wong 2017, p. 39.
 
207
Goodstadt 2018, p. 1.
 
208
Chan 2019, p. 454.
 
209
Chou 2015, p. 28–29.
 
210
Lo 2012, p. 23.
 
211
Lo 2001, p. 97–98.
 
212
Ibid., p. 130.
 
213
Lo 2001, p. 521.
 
214
Jang 2018, p. 543.
 
215
Yee 2014, p. 12.
 
216
Chou 2005, p. 200; Sheng 2016, p. 529.
 
217
Yu 2011, p. 64–65.
 
218
Kwong 2017, p. 132.
 
219
Ibid., p. 131.
 
220
Ibid.
 
221
Ieong 2017, p. 505.
 
222
Hao 2015, p. 86.
 
223
Ieong 2017, p. 506.
 
224
Ibid., p. 507.
 
225
Ibid.
 
226
Lam 2014
 
227
Hao 2015, p. 86–88.
 
228
Macau News 2019.
 
229
Purbrick 2019, p. 12.
 
230
Song 2015, p. 154.
 
231
Jiang 2017, p. 113.
 
232
Article 2 of the Hong Kong Basic Law of 1990; Article 2 of the Lei Básica de Macau of 1993.
 
233
Chan 2019.
 
234
Fu et al. 2007, p. 3.
 
235
Ip 2015.
 
236
Cheung 2019, p. 104.
 
237
Ma 2018, p. 21.
 
238
Ip 2016b.
 
239
Ibid., p. 342.
 
240
Florence and Cabestan 2018, p. 3.
 
241
Sabine 2018.
 
242
Wong and Xiao 2018, 416.
 
243
Morris 2007, p. 100.
 
244
Lanteigne 2013, p. 144.
 
245
Goodstadt 2018, p. 161.
 
246
The Economist 2019.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Comparative Constitutional Politics in the Chinese Special Administrative Regions of Hong Kong and Macau
verfasst von
Eric C. Ip
Copyright-Jahr
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-431-0_6