nach oben

The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment

Erschienen in:

23.05.2020 | MODERN INDIVIDUAL MOBILITY

Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle

verfasst von: Anne Bouter, Emmanuel Hache, Cyprien Ternel, Sandra Beauchet

Erschienen in: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment | Ausgabe 8/2020

Einloggen

Aktivieren Sie unsere intelligente Suche, um passende Fachinhalte oder Patente zu finden.

search-config

KI-gestützte Suche

Aus

Abstract

Purpose

Environmental assessments in the transportation sector are often lacking in transparency and completeness. In this article, the environmental trade-offs in road passenger transportation between conventional vehicles and electrified vehicles are compared, using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Hence, the relevance of a massive electrification approach can be questioned. Assessing a set of current midsize passenger cars and buses allows for investigation of potential environmental issues. This is the first detailed LCA concerning several hybridization levels for cars and buses, and it is based on real consumption data for two traffic conditions.

Methods

We focused on the ISO standards (ISO 2006a, b) and analyzed the energy carriers’ life cycle and the vehicle’s life cycle. The functional unit is clearly defined as the transportation of one passenger over 1 km in specific driving conditions from a point A to a point B, without prejudice toward the path taken. Vehicle specifications were derived based on the available manufacturers’ data, literature, and French Institute of Petroleum (IFPEN) experts. For the use stage, two driving cycles were assessed: the “worldwide harmonized light vehicles test procedure” (WLTP) cycle and an urban cycle. France was selected as the study area, and a sensitivity analysis was performed based on a European electricity charging mix for electrified vehicles.

Results and discussion

Battery electric vehicles (EVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) exhibit the highest climate change (CC) mitigation potential, provided that the electricity mix has low carbon and that the PHEV is used with a fully-charged battery. With these conditions, PHEVs can perform even better than EVs. In that regard, PHEVs using only a thermic engine perform the worst in regard to CC indicator. It is also worth mentioning that electric buses are the best solution in urban traffic conditions for decreasing greenhouse gas emissions. Among powertrains, the electrified powertrains are even more important when performing in urban cycles. For other environmental indicators, such as particulate matter emissions, EVs perform worse than conventional thermic vehicles.

Conclusions

The results underline the importance of considering vehicles’ life cycles for LCA in the transportation sector and the need for multicriteria environmental analysis. Therefore, electrification of the transportation sector should not be driven by a single CC indicator, as this may generate potential environmental drawbacks. It is also crucial to adapt public policies to the local context because the results are highly sensitive to the electricity charging mix.

Vorheriger Artikel Should we neglect cement carbonation in life cycle inventory databases?

Nächster Artikel Parsimonious powertrain modeling for environmental vehicle assessments: part 1—internal combustion vehicles

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 102.000 Bücher
über 537 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Finance + Banking
Management + Führung
Marketing + Vertrieb
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe
Versicherung + Risiko

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

Springer Professional "Technik"

Online-Abonnement

Mit Springer Professional "Technik" erhalten Sie Zugriff auf:

über 67.000 Bücher
über 390 Zeitschriften

aus folgenden Fachgebieten:

Automobil + Motoren
Bauwesen + Immobilien
Business IT + Informatik
Elektrotechnik + Elektronik
Energie + Nachhaltigkeit
Maschinenbau + Werkstoffe

Jetzt Wissensvorsprung sichern!

Jetzt informieren

The vehicle must fulfill several conditions of which a maximum emission rate of 20 g CO₂ eq./km. The amount of the aid is capped at 6000 euros.

This issue will not be studied in this article.

IFPEN technological offer regarding sustainable mobility is structured around hybrid and electric powertrains, IC powertrains, and connected vehicles.

Vehicle’s glider encompasses vehicle body and wheels.

We choose not to include cases in which no passengers were in the bus.

ADEME (2008) Review of materials recovery from obsolete vehicles’ treatment

ADEME (2017) Annual report of obsolete wheels and tires observatory

ADEME (2018) Annual report of obsolete vehicles observatory. 2016 data

Allacker K, Mathieux F, Pennington D, Pant R (2017) The search for an appropriate end-of-life formula for the purpose of the European Commission Environmental Footprint initiative. Int J Life Cycle Assess 22(9):1441–1458. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-016-1244-0 CrossRef

André M (2004) The ARTEMIS European driving cycles for measuring car pollutant emissions. Sci Total Environ 334-335:73–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2004.04.070 CrossRef

Badin F, Le Berr F, Briki H, Dabadie J, Petit M, Magand S, Condemine E (2013) Evaluation of EVs energy consumption influencing factors, driving conditions, auxiliaries use, driver's aggressiveness) . WEVJ 6(ISSN 2032-6653

Badin F, Berr F, Castel G, Dabadie J, Briki H, Degeilh P, Pasquier M (2015) Energy efficiency evaluation of a plug-in hybrid vehicle under European procedure, worldwide harmonized procedure and actual use. WEVJ 7(3):475–488. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj7030475 CrossRef

Bardhi F, Eckhardt GM (2012) Access-based consumption. The case of car sharing: table 1. J Consum Res 39(4):881–898. https://doi.org/10.1086/666376 CrossRef

Bare JC, Hofstetter P, Pennington DW, de Haes HAU (2000) Midpoints versus endpoints. The sacrifices and benefits. Int J Life Cycle Assess 5(6):319. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02978665 CrossRef

Bauer C, Hofer J, Althaus H-J, Duce AD, Simons A (2015) The environmental performance of current and future passenger vehicles. Life cycle assessment based on a novel scenario analysis framework. Appl Energy 157:871–883. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.01.019 CrossRef

Bonnet C, Carcanague S, Hache E, Seck G, Simoen M (2018) Vers une géopolitique de l'énergie plus complexe ? Une analyse prospective tridimensionnelle de la transition énergétique

Brinkman N, Wang M, Weber T, Darlington T (2005) Well-to-wheels analysis of advanced fuel/vehicle systems. A North American study of energy use, greenhouse gas emissions, and criteria pollutant emissions

Chan CC (2007) The state of the art of electric, hybrid, and fuel cell vehicles. Proc IEEE 95(4):704–718. https://doi.org/10.1109/JPROC.2007.892489 CrossRef

Coroller P, Plassat G (ed) (2003) Comparative study on exhaust emissions from diesel-and cng-powered urban buses

Da Costa A, Kim N, Le Berr F, Marc N, Badin F, Rousseau A (2012) Fuel consumption potential of different plug-in hybrid vehicle architectures in the European and American contexts. WEVJ 5(1):159–172. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj5010159 CrossRef

European Commission (2017) EU transport in figures. Statistical pocketbook

European Commission (ed) (2018) Testing of emissions from cars

European Environment Agency (2019) Transport. https://www.eea.europa.eu/themes/transport/intro. Accessed 27 Feb 2019

European Environment Agency Road Transport Guide Book European Environment Agency (2008) Occupancy rates. https://www.eea.europa.eu/downloads/0c1c4a6acf289ffdefa1876ea5d60f07/1461081880/page029.html.pdf. Accessed 28 Feb 2019

Frischknecht R, Braunschweig A, Hofstetter P, Suter P (2000) Human health damages due to ionising radiation in life cycle impact assessment. Environ Impact Assess Rev 20(2):159–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0195-9255(99)00042-6 CrossRef

Frischknecht R, Jungbluth N, Althaus H-J, Doka G, Dones R, Heck T, Hellweg S, Hischier R, Nemecek T, Rebitzer G, Spielmann M (2005) The ecoinvent database. Overview and methodological framework (7 pp). Int J Life Cycle Assess 10(1):3–9. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2004.10.181.1 CrossRef

General Commissioner for Sustainable Development (2016) Twenty five years of internal transportation of passengers. n°148

Gerrard J, Kandlikar M (2007) Is European end-of-life vehicle legislation living up to expectations? Assessing the impact of the ELV Directive on ‘green’ innovation and vehicle recovery. J Clean Prod 15(1):17–27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2005.06.004 CrossRef

Goedkoop M, Heijungs R, Huijbregts M, De Schryver A, Struijs J, van Zelm R (2008) ReCiPe 2008. A life cycle impact assessment method which comprises harmonised category indicators at the midpoint and the endpoint level. First edition Report I: Characterisation

Graedel TE, Harper EM, Nassar NT, Nuss P, Reck BK (2015) Criticality of metals and metalloids. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112(14):4257–4262. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1500415112 CrossRef

Guinée JB (2002) Handbook on life cycle assessment. Operational guide to the ISO standards. Kluwer Academic, Dordrecht

Hache E, Seck G, Simoen M, Bonnet C, Carcanague S (2019) Critical raw materials and transportation sector electrification: A detailed bottom-up analysis in world transport. Appl Energy:240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.02.057

Hao H, Mu Z, Jiang S, Liu Z, Zhao F (2017) GHG emissions from the production of lithium-ion batteries for electric vehicles in China. Sustain 9(4):504. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9040504 CrossRef

Hawkins TR, Singh B, Majeau-Bettez G, Strømman AH (2013) Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of conventional and electric vehicles. J Ind Ecol 17(1):53–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-9290.2012.00532.x CrossRef

Huang J, Levinson DM (2015) Circuity in urban transit networks. J Transp Geogr 48:145–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2015.09.004 CrossRef

Humbert S, Marshall JD, Shaked S, Spadaro JV, Nishioka Y, Preiss P, McKone TE, Horvath A, Jolliet O (2011) Intake fraction for particulate matter. Recommendations for life cycle impact assessment. Environ Sci Technol 45(11):4808–4816. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103563z CrossRef

ICCT (ed) (2014) The WLTP: how a new test procedure for cars will affect fuel consumption values in the EU. Working paper

IFP Energies nouvelles, ADEME (2018) Bilan transversal de l’impact de l’électrification par segment – ADEME. https://www.ademe.fr/bilan-transversal-limpact-lelectrification-segment. Accessed 19 Apr 2019

INFRAS (2019) HBEFA 4.1. Development report

IPCC (2007) Climate change 2007: synthesis report. [a report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change]. IPCC, Geneva

IRENA (2019) A new world: the geopolitics of the energy transformation

ISO (2006a) Environmental management - life cycle assessment - principles and framework 13.020.60(14040:2006). Accessed 19 Jun 2018

ISO (2006b) Environmental management - life cycle assessment - requirements and guidelines 13.020.10 ; 13.020.60(14044:2006). Accessed 04 Feb 2019

JEC - Joint Research Center-EUCAR-CONCAWE collaboration (2014) Well-to-wheels analysis of future automotive fuels and powertrain in the European context. Description, results and input data per pathway. WTT_Appendix_4_v4a_APRIL2014

JRC - European Commission (2012) Recommendations for life cycle impact assessment in the European context. - based on existing environmental impact assessment models and factors, First edition. Publications office of the European Union, Luxembourg

Kanari N, Pineau J-L, Shallari S (2003) End-of-life vehicle recycling in the European union. JOM 55(8):15–19. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11837-003-0098-7 CrossRef

Kim HC, Wallington TJ, Arsenault R, Bae C, Ahn S, Lee J (2016) Cradle-to-gate emissions from a commercial electric vehicle li-ion battery: a comparative analysis. Environ Sci Technol 50(14):7715–7722. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00830 CrossRef

Loisel R, Pasaoglu G, Thiel C (2014) Large-scale deployment of electric vehicles in Germany by 2030. An analysis of grid-to-vehicle and vehicle-to-grid concepts. Energ Policy 65:432–443. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2013.10.029 CrossRef

Lombardi L, Tribioli L, Cozzolino R, Bella G (2017) Comparative environmental assessment of conventional, electric, hybrid, and fuel cell powertrains based on LCA. Int J Life Cycle Assess 22(12):1989–2006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-017-1294-y CrossRef

Majeau-Bettez G, Hawkins TR, Strømman AH (2011) Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 45(10):4548–4554. https://doi.org/10.1021/es103607c CrossRef

Marc N, Prada E, Sciarretta A, Anwer S, Vangraefschepe F, Badin F, Charlet A, Higelin P (2010) Sizing and fuel consumption evaluation methodology for hybrid light duty vehicles. WEVJ 4(2):249–258. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj4020249 CrossRef

Meyer I, Kaniovski S, Scheffran J (2012) Scenarios for regional passenger car fleets and their CO2 emissions. Energ Policy 41:66–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enpol.2011.01.043 CrossRef

Ministry for Ecological and Solidarity Transition (2014) Panorama of waste generation in France

Nemry F, Brons M (2010) Plug-in hybrid and battery electric. Market penetration scenarios of electric drive vehicles. JRC Technical Notes. Draft technical note JRC-IPTS

Nemry F, Leduc G, Mongelli I, Uihlein A (2008) Environmental improvement of passenger cars (IMPRO-car). EUR. Scientific and technical research series, vol 23038. Publications Office, Luxembourg

Nemry F, Vanherle K, Zimmer W, Uihlein A, Genty A, Rueda-Cantuche J-M, Mongelli I, Neuwahl F, Delgado L, Hacker F, Seum S, Buchert M, Schade W (2009) Feebate and Scrappage policy instruments. Environmental and economic impacts for the EU27, EUR 23896 EN. EUR. Scientific and technical research series, vol 23896. OPOCE, Luxembourg

Nicholson AL, Olivetti EA, Gregory JR, Field FR, Kirchain RE (2009) End-of-life LCA allocation methods: open loop recycling impacts on robustness of material selection decisions. Inst Electr Electron Eng:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISSST.2009.5156769

Nordelöf A, Messagie M, Tillman A, Ljunggren Söderman M, van Mierlo J (2014) Environmental impacts of hybrid, plug-in hybrid, and battery electric vehicles—what can we learn from life cycle assessment? Int J Life Cycle Assess 19(11):1866–1890. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-014-0788-0 CrossRef

Notter DA, Gauch M, Widmer R, Wäger P, Stamp A, Zah R, Althaus H-J (2010) Contribution of Li-ion batteries to the environmental impact of electric vehicles. Environ Sci Technol 44(17):6550–6556. https://doi.org/10.1021/es903729a CrossRef

OECD (2019) Global material resources outlook to 2060 : Economic drivers and environmental consequences, OCDE, Paris

OMNIL (2011) Numbers for public transportation

Paulley N, Balcombe R, Mackett R, Titheridge H, Preston J, Wardman M, Shires J, White P (2006) The demand for public transport. The effects of fares, quality of service, income and car ownership. Transp Policy 13(4):295–306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2005.12.004 CrossRef

PE International AG and Gingko 21 (2013) Elaboration selon les principes des ACV des bilans énergétiques, des émissions de GES et des autres impacts environnementaux induits par l’ensemble des filières de véhicules électriques et de véhicules thermiques, VP de segment B (citadine polyvalente) et VUL à l’horizon 2012 et 2020. Etude réalisée pour le compte de l’ADEME

Peters JF, Baumann M, Zimmermann B, Braun J, Weil M (2017) The environmental impact of Li-ion batteries and the role of key parameters – a review. Renew Sust Energ Rev 67:491–506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.08.039 CrossRef

Posch M, Seppälä J, Hettelingh J-P, Johansson M, Margni M, Jolliet O (2008) The role of atmospheric dispersion models and ecosystem sensitivity in the determination of characterisation factors for acidifying and eutrophying emissions in LCIA. Int J Life Cycle Assess 13(6):477–486. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-008-0025-9 CrossRef

Rabl, A. and Spadaro, J.V. (2004). The RiskPoll software, version is 1.051. www.arirabl.com. Accessed Aug 2004

Romare M, Dahllöf L (2017) The life cycle energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from lithium-ion batteries. A Study with Focus on Current Technology and Batteries for light-duty vehicles

Sadek N (2012) Urban electric vehicles. A contemporary business case. Eur Transp Res Rev 4(1):27–37. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12544-011-0061-6 CrossRef

Schmidt W-P, Dahlqvist E, Finkbeiner M, Krinke S, Lazzari S, Oschmann D, Pichon S, Thiel C (2004) Life cycle assessment of lightweight and end-of-life scenarios for generic compact class passenger vehicles. Int J Life Cycle Assess 9(6):405–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02979084 CrossRef

Scholl L, Schipper L, Kiang N (1996) CO2 emissions from passenger transport. A comparison of international trends from 1973 to 1992. Energ Policy 24(1):17–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-4215(95)00148-4 CrossRef

Seppälä J, Posch M, Johansson M, Hettelingh J-P (2006) Country-dependent characterisation factors for acidification and terrestrial eutrophication based on accumulated exceedance as an impact category indicator (14 pp). Int J Life Cycle Assess 11(6):403–416. https://doi.org/10.1065/lca2005.06.215 CrossRef

Sharma R, Manzie C, Bessede M, Crawford RH, Brear MJ (2013) Conventional, hybrid and electric vehicles for Australian driving conditions. Part 2. Life cycle CO2-e emissions. Transport Res C Emerg Technol 28:63–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trc.2012.12.011 CrossRef

Spielmann M, Bauer C, Dones R, Tuchsmid M (2007) Transport services. Ecoinvent report n°14, Dübendorf

Szczechowicz E, Dederichs T, Schnettler A (2012) Regional assessment of local emissions of electric vehicles using traffic simulations for a use case in Germany. Int J Life Cycle Assess 17(9):1131–1141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-012-0425-8 CrossRef

The Commission of the European Communities (1999) Regulation (EEC) No 4064/89 about the Case No IV/M.1406 – HYUNDAI / KIA

The Commission of the European Communities (2008) Commission Regulation (EC) No 692/2008 implementing and amending Regulation (EC) No 715/2007 of the European Parliament and of the Council on type-approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information. In: Off J Eur Union, L 199:1–135

The Council of the European Communities (1970) Council Directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by gases from positive-ignition engines of motor vehicles. In: Off J Eur Union, L 76:171–191

The European Parliament and the Council (2000) Directive 2000/53/EC on end-of life vehicles. In: Off J Eur Communities, L 269:34–43

The European Parliament and the Council (2005) Directive 2005/64/EC on the type-approval of motor vehicles with regard to their reusability, recyclability and recoverability and amending Council Directive 70/156/EEC. In: Off J Eur Union, L 310:11–27

The European Parliament and the Council (2006) Directive 2006/66/EC on batteries and accumulators and waste batteries and accumulators and repealing Directive 91/157/EEC. In: Off J Eur Union, L 266:1–13

The European Parliament and the Council (2009) Regulation setting emission performance standards for new passenger cars as part of the Community’s integrated approach to reduce CO2 emissions from light-duty vehicles. Regulation (EC) No 443/2009

The European Parliament and the Council (2014) Regulation (EU) No 333/2014 amending regulation (EC) No 443/2009 to define the modalities for reaching the 2020 target to reduce CO2 emissions from new passenger cars. In: Off J Eur Union L 103:15–21

The French Ministry for Ecological and Solidarity Transition (2009) Decree regarding the registration of the vehicles. In: Off J Fr Repub 1–33

The French Ministry for Ecological and Solidarity Transition (2017) Decree regarding aid management for the purchase and the renting of low-emission vehicles. In: Off J Fr Repub, No 0305: 1–4

TNO (2016) Supporting analysis on real-world light-duty vehicle CO2 emissions. https://ec.europa.eu/clima/sites/clima/files/transport/vehicles/docs/analysis_ldv_co2_emissions_en.pdf. Accessed 27 Feb 2019

Tran M, Banister D, Bishop JDK, McCulloch MD (2012) Realizing the electric-vehicle revolution. Nat Clim Chang 2(5):328–333. https://doi.org/10.1038/nclimate1429 CrossRef

United Nations (2017) World population prospects. The 2017 revision. Key findings and advance tables, ES/P/WP/248

van Zelm R, Huijbregts MAJ, den Hollander HA, van Jaarsveld HA, Sauter FJ, Struijs J, van Wijnen HJ, van de Meent D (2008) European characterization factors for human health damage of PM10 and ozone in life cycle impact assessment. Atmos Environ 42(3):441–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2007.09.072 CrossRef

WBCSD (2001) Mobility 2001. World Mobility at the End of the Twentieth Century and Its Sustainability

World Bank Group (2017) The growing role of minerals and metals for a low carbon future

World Meteorological Organization (1999) Scientific assessment of ozone depletion. WMO Global Ozone Research and Monitoring Project - Report No. 44. Geneva, 1998

Titel: Comparative environmental life cycle assessment of several powertrain types for cars and buses in France for two driving cycles: “worldwide harmonized light vehicle test procedure” cycle and urban cycle
verfasst von: Anne Bouter
Emmanuel Hache
Cyprien Ternel
Sandra Beauchet
Publikationsdatum: 23.05.2020
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Erschienen in: The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment / Ausgabe 8/2020
Print ISSN: 0948-3349
Elektronische ISSN: 1614-7502
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01756-2

Springer Professional

Abstract

Purpose

Methods

Results and discussion

Conclusions

Bitte loggen Sie sich ein, um Zugang zu Ihrer Lizenz zu erhalten.

Sie haben noch keine Lizenz? Dann Informieren Sie sich jetzt über unsere Produkte:

Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik"

Springer Professional "Technik"

Weitere Artikel der Ausgabe 8/2020

Integration of life cycle assessment into planning and project delivery for pavements in the USA

When to replace a product to decrease environmental impact?—a consequential LCA framework and case study on car replacement

Correction to: Addressing the use and end-of-life phase of pharmaceutical products in life cycle assessment

Regionalized environmental impacts of construction machinery

Parsimonious powertrain modeling for environmental vehicle assessments: part 2—electric vehicles

Fishmeal partial substitution within aquafeed formulations: life cycle assessment of four alternative protein sources