Computational modeling and molecular insights into potassium hydroxide doped 4-phenylthiophene-2-carboxylate: structural, electronic, and material medium analysis

This study provides an integrated experimental–theoretical assessment of KOH-doped 4-phenylthiophene-2-carboxylic acid (K–PTCA) crystals, establishing a clear structure–property relationship in the CGS framework. Single-crystal and powder XRD confirm monoclinic symmetry (P2₁/n) with K⁺-induced lattice distortion, producing enhanced anisotropy compared with earlier thiophene-based NLO systems. The crystal exhibits high transparency (~ 88%), a direct band gap of 2.88 eV, birefringence Δn = 0.15, and dielectric anisotropy Δε = 0.520, all exceeding values reported for undoped π-conjugated analogues. Z-scan analysis reveals strong third-order nonlinear behaviour with n₂ = 8.0 × 10⁻¹⁵ cm²/W, corresponding to n₂ = 8.0 × 10⁻¹⁷ cm²/erg, β = 5.0 × 10⁻⁹ cm/W (i.e., β = 5.0 × 10⁻¹¹ cm/erg), and a third-order susceptibility χ(³) = 8.6 × 10⁻²¹ m²/V², equivalent to χ(³) ≈ 7.2 × 10⁻¹³ esu. These NLO parameters surpass K-doped aromatic crystals and approach high-performance benchmarks reported by Boyd and Hales for advanced organic materials. The laser damage threshold of 9.98 J/cm² corresponds to 9.98 × 10⁷ erg/cm², indicating enhanced optical robustness. Computational analyses (MEP, Mulliken, NBO) confirm strong K⁺-K-mediated bond polarization and π-electron delocalization, yielding a high molecular hyperpolarizability β_tot ≈ 318 a.u. Frontier orbital mapping and ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy reveal efficient charge transfer and carrier relaxation in the 2–3 ps range, faster than most heteroaromatic NLO crystals. The combined effects of ionic coordination, lattice distortion, and charge redistribution position K–PTCA as a compact, multifunctional, and optically stable material suitable for optical limiting, frequency conversion, and ultrafast all-optical modulation.