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Das Kapitel untersucht die zentrale Rolle der physischen Straßeninfrastruktur für die Sicherheit und Leistung vernetzter und autonomer Fahrzeuge (CAVs). Darin wird untersucht, wie der Übergang zum autonomen Fahren die Interaktionen zwischen "Mensch", "Fahrzeug" und "Infrastruktur" neu definiert, wobei die Notwendigkeit einer qualitativ hochwertigen Infrastruktur zur Unterstützung der autonomen Mobilität betont wird. Der Text diskutiert neue Sicherheitsrisiken im Zusammenhang mit CAVs, wie Auskupplungen und den Verlust menschlicher Fahrfähigkeiten, und betont die Bedeutung einer klaren und einheitlichen Signalgebung für das Funktionieren neuer Fahrzeugtechnologien. Darüber hinaus werden die Herausforderungen und Chancen untersucht, die die schrittweise Einführung autonomer Mobilität mit sich bringt, einschließlich der Notwendigkeit verlässlicher Algorithmen, Konnektivität und politischer Entscheidungen, die der Unfallverhütung Priorität einräumen. Das Kapitel schließt mit Empfehlungen für Straßenbehörden zu Infrastrukturmerkmalen, die den selbstfahrenden Verkehr fördern können, wobei die Bedeutung der Zusammenarbeit zwischen den Beteiligten betont wird.
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Abstract
This paper summarizes work from a BRRC working group with external experts, which examines the contribution of infrastructure to road traffic safety, regarding connected and autonomous vehicles.
We gained insight into relevant traffic safety matters linked to the road infrastructure component. The working group addressed questions such as: are advanced vehicles safer than traditional vehicles? How do new risks relate to potential road safety gains? What relevant background information is available? What about the role of road infrastructure, traffic signs and road markings? How important are digital twins?
Based on literature review and expert discussions, relevant knowledge about road infrastructure issues in relation to the safe authorization of autonomous vehicles was collected and summarized in a BRRC publication for road owners and other partners in the road construction sector. The most important conclusions are presented in this article.
1 The Issue: What About CAV (Connected and Autonomous Vehicles) and the Physical Road Infrastructure?
The introduction of connected and autonomous vehicles adds a digital dimension to the traffic system. The functioning of the system and its road safety performance is largely determined by the quality of the interactions of the system elements (‘human’, ‘vehicle’ and ‘infrastructure’). This is not different from today. However, the shift to autonomous driving redefines these interactions.
Industry and governments are focusing on research and testing, to gradually introduce vehicles with higher SAE-levels (Society of Automotive Engineers – levels). Research into autonomous vehicles involves many aspects, both on the technical side and the ethical / societal side.
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The role of physical road infrastructure seems underexposed within research concerning AV (autonomous vehicle) safety. Car manufacturers tend to downplay the role of road infrastructure and are not always consistent about the need for digital infrastructure. Gradually, government bodies in Europe start asking questions about the investments (often planned long in advance) that are needed, to promote the development of autonomous mobility.
2 What We Found
Autonomous mobility as a catalyst to improved road safety is an important motivation for policymakers and companies. The gradual introduction as an alternative to more traditional forms of travel is a challenge and offers opportunities for a safer traffic system.
2.1 New Safety Risks
Based on a literature study, discussions with experts and information from conferences, we conclude that, vehicle automation is not a panacea [1] but can undeniably provide road safety gains. However, new road safety risks also arise [2].
Reasons for this include:
Vehicles with different automation levels will remain operational for a long time.
Taking over control by a human driver can take up to 10 s.
Disengagements in more complex situations can be problematic.
Drivers can gradually lose their driving skills.
The non-verbal interaction between human road users is difficult to automate.
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2.2 The Unruly Reality of Vehicle Development
The introduction of autonomous mobility is slower than predicted. In ethical and legal areas, social acceptance or economic viability, reality has proven to be unruly than expected. Additionally, the focus shifts to the development of cleaner vehicles.
Advocates of autonomous mobility argue that there are no technical barriers to authorize autonomous vehicles on the road network, not even in an urban context. They refer to tests outside the EU (European Union) that have gone beyond the level of a pilot project.
2.3 Disengagements
Autonomous vehicles are taking increasingly less the initiative for disengagements. This suggests that self-driving vehicles are increasingly reliably. Furthermore, information shows that road infrastructure (e.g., visibility of signaling or defects in the road surface) is not the main reasons for the disengagements (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1.
Cause category for two types of disengagement, Zhang, 2021
Traffic accidents involving autonomous vehicles are widely reported and could compromise consumer confidence. However, research shows that confidence in autonomous mobility increases. When emphasizing on potential road safety gains, acceptance might even further increase.
Public exposure of incidents with self-driving vehicles tends to introduce a certain reluctance from policymakers for introduction of autonomous vehicles. Based on analysis of traffic accidents involving self-driving vehicles, it seems correct that this is (at least partly) unjustified: the cause of accidents often lies with the other vehicle and the severity of accidents is usually lower [3]. (Based on data from tests with AV in the US (United States). The data are several years old, further improvement seems likely).
Today, driving skills of human drivers are evaluated during initial training and subsequent monitoring. EU Regulations [4] that define the technical requirements of motor vehicles, progressively introduce mandatory ADAS (Advanced Driver Assistance Systems) functions and methods to evaluate the functionality of these systems.
However, there is no unambiguous method for evaluating the overall road safety behavior of autonomous vehicles (or benchmarking with ‘conventional’ vehicles). Today, a combination of simulations and pilot projects seems the best way to avoid a biased appreciation of the road safety potential. Tests on public roads is the most reliable method to demonstrate safety. This can be done in full self-driving mode or in so-called ‘shadow’ mode (human driver behavior is observed by the algorithm and used for further adjustment).
Today, there are no full self-driving vehicles on the consumer market. The most advanced vehicles are SAE level 3, currently only permitted in limited and specific driving conditions. On the other hand, large scale robotaxi services are operational in various places around the world (US, China), usually limited to the home countries of the service providers. EU countries however appear rather reluctant to large-scale testing, among others due to uncertainty about the road safety effects.
Improved safety is an absolute, but not yet fully defined, condition when organizing tests or authorizing autonomous vehicles and successfully introduce such vehicles on EU roads.
2.6 Operational Design Domain on Existing Roads
Automotive manufacturers only guarantee the reliable operation of driving support or self-driving functions under specific circumstances; the so-called Operational Design Domain (ODD) [5]. Unfortunately, formal agreements about the parameters that define an ODD are missing today. There is no unequivocal standard for ‘the’ road that supports autonomous mobility. A definition of the required infrastructure elements to allow autonomous mobility would however be helpful for road authorities for planning future investments or when allowing autonomous driving on specific road sections.
There seems to be a fair consensus among industry and policy makers that autonomous vehicles will use existing roads and construction of roads specifically for autonomous vehicles is not desirable. Particularly in an urban context, that is the only logical approach.
2.7 Algorithms Under Development
Traffic accidents with autonomous vehicles can partially be attributed to system errors [6]. This may involve perception errors (hardware errors, software bugs), decision errors (late or incorrect information) and action errors (mechanical faltering of the vehicle). Development of the algorithms and artificial intelligence can contribute to an increasingly reliable system.
Weather conditions influence the functioning of autonomous vehicles. Algorithms of autonomous vehicles are usually designed for a conservative approach and can protect human drivers from taking risks in unfavorable weather conditions.
2.8 Traffic Signs and Road Markings
Clear and uniform signaling undeniably contributes to the functioning of new vehicle technologies. However, the correct reading of traffic signs and road markings under unfavorable conditions (bad weather, faded signs…) often remains challenging.
Recommendations for the visibility of road markings are not always achieved. Fortunately, technological evolutions allow AV to deal increasingly well with poor road markings. In addition, vehicles with varying automation levels will continue to use current roads. Maintenance and investments in road markings and traffic signs therefore remain relevant for human road users as well as for autonomous vehicles.
2.9 Connectivity
Connectivity can contribute to the functioning of autonomous vehicles. Unintentional or intentional (malicious) dysfunctional connectivity is seen as an argument for not relying on connectivity for at least safety critical functions.
2.10 Vision Zero
Traffic policies aspire zero road deaths by 2050. Recent policies link to an integrated approach; the Safe System Approach [2], based, among others, on shared responsibility. It acknowledges that humans make mistakes and promotes system configuration that avoids severe consequences after faulty or unpredictable human behavior.
Also, AV make mistakes, or the algorithm is not yet sufficiently developed to deal with all possible situations. Policies about autonomous vehicles must also take accident prevention into consideration. Concrete: the correct functioning of driving support or self-driving systems depends on the correct configuration of all elements (e.g., safe system, infrastructure) and the interactions between them, on a road environment of sufficient quality and supposing reliable functioning of communication facilities. In this sense, the shift to autonomous mobility even more emphasizes the importance of good cooperation between the various stakeholders (Fig. 2).
2.11 ISA (Intelligent Speed Assistance) Reliability
Fig. 2.
Elements that determine the speed regime (ITS.be, 2022).
Reproduced with permission from TomTom Belgium NV, copyright TomTom Belgium NV, 2025.
Insufficient harmonization of traffic signs, reduced visibility, additional (local) rules and implicit rules (e.g., speed regime after the end of the built-up area) make it difficult for ISA systems to reliably identify the applicable speed regime. Increasing the reliability of these systems requires external information sources (digital maps) and additional efforts, including in the maintenance.
2.12 Infrastructure Characteristics
Road authorities need recommendations on the infrastructure features that can promote self-driving transport. This concerns a.o. requirements for physical road elements (signaling, surface characteristics), development of AI systems and smart roadside units.
2.13 Road Works
The ITS Directive (2010/40/EC) and associated regulations [7] already require certain traffic information (including for short-term road works) to be made available to road users. Advanced (connected) vehicles contribute to do this more efficiently.
3 Closing Statement
BRRC publication ‘CAV and road safety’ discusses the previous elements. It presents an overview of relevant background information, elements of research and testing, road safety policies and objectives and provides more insight into the infrastructure component. This knowledge contributes to short- and medium-term choices made by road administrations.
Open Access This chapter is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the chapter's Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the chapter's Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder.
Petrovic, D., Mijailovic, C., Pesic, D.: Traffic accidents with autonomous vehicles: Type of collisions, maneuvers, and errors of conventional vehicles’ drivers. In: AIIT 2nd International Congress on Transport Infrastructure and Systems in a Changing World, Rome (2019)
4.
Regulation (EU) 2019/2144 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 27 November 2019 on type-approval requirements for motor vehicles and their trailers, and systems, components and separate technical units intended for such vehicles, as regards their general safety and the protection of vehicle occupants and vulnerable road users
