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2021 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

Correcting Information Asymmetry Via Deep Consumer Information; Compelling Companies to Let the Sunshine In

verfasst von : Danny Friedmann

Erschienen in: Consumer Law and Economics

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

Consumers that want to make ethical purchasing decisions and governments that want to make policy decisions to stimulate ethical manufacturing, are left in the dark. Many products are composed of several constituting parts, with or without negative externalities, manufactured by often separate producers, which increases the general perplexity about their degree of ethicality. In ‘More Than You Wanted to Know: The Failure of Mandated Disclosure’, Professors Ben-Shahar and Schneider have exposed systemic challenges to mandated disclosurite systems. Building upon their work, and applying their lessons, this paper explores the possibility of a disclosurite system, “Deep Consumer Information”, which does not mandate, but nevertheless compels companies, due to market forces, to disclose information about the ethicality of their products. Combining Neoclassical Economics (giving consumers the opportunity to make rational choices about the relative weights they want to give to certain ethical issues, for example via intuitive sliders on an app) and Behavioral Economics (notifying the aggregate ethicality ranking of the constituting parts of a product, that can be displayed on the screen of a phone or at digital supermarket shelves), Deep Consumer Information is trying to correct the asymmetry between on the one hand; company and consumer, and on the other; company and government.

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Fußnoten
1
Ovidius, Tristia, V. xiv, 19–46.
 
2
Sutherland (2011), p. 4.
 
3
Ben-Shahar an Schneider (2014).
 
4
Rational choice is here interpreted as one’s rational decision to give substance and effect to one’s possibly irrational preferences.
 
5
With Information of Things (IoT) a chip can be embedded to the natural “face” of the product, the trademark, which signifies the underlying goodwill of the company. Friedmann (2018), p. 679.
 
6
Thaler and Sunstein (2008), pp. 4–6.
 
7
Thaler and Sunstein (2008), pp. 4–6.
 
8
Ariely D, professor of psychology and behavioural economics at the Center for Advanced Hindsight, Duke University, Durham, N.C.: “Our perception of value is dramatically subjective. It comes from lots of things from the environment.” Real Value, documentary by Jesse Borkowski 2013. Available at: https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​ez3CWXQrgVo.
 
9
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10
Regulatory capture is a form of government failure which occurs when a regulatory agency, created to act in the public interest, instead advances the commercial or political concerns of special interest groups that dominate the industry or sector it is charged with regulating. See in general, Dal Bó (2006) Oxford Review of Economic Policy, 22:2, pp. 203–225.
 
11
Ag-gag (Agricultural gag) laws criminalize undercover whistleblowing at factory farms in multiple states of the U.S. (Iowa, Utah, Missouri, Idaho, Wyoming, which impose criminal penalties; and North Carolina, which impose a civil sanction), which makes it impossible to hold factory farms accountable for their actions. Ganzler (2019). Cohen (2019).
 
12
Pasquale (2015).
 
13
Pasquale refers to the research by Robert Gelman and Pam Dixon: There is legislation in the U.S. for consumers to inspect, annotate and correct the three big credit bureaus in the U.S. [Fair Credit Reporting Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1681, effective 26 October 1970] to make sure that the right information is used. However, there are at least 4000 data brokers who make consumer scores based on different dimensions; which means that correcting information for consumers has become a full-time job which is not feasible and thus can have severe consequences. Looking at The Black Box Society, A USPIRG Education Fund/Center for Digital Democracy Event, YouTube video. Available at: https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​hkXdxYG_​lFA.
 
14
The medieval guilds are a case in point. Vogel (2010), p. 70.
 
15
CSR has its roots in the time of the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s. Carroll (2008), pp. 19–20.
 
16
Carroll (2008), pp. 20–21.
 
17
Friedman (1962), p. 133.
 
18
Moon (2005), pp. 56–57.
 
19
Devitt (2018).
 
20
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21
Neslen (2017).
 
22
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23
Kent (2018).
 
25
Aggarwal and Kadyan (2011), pp. 61–66.
 
26
Mandalaki and O’Sullivan (2016), pp. 203–227.
 
27
Vogel (2010), p. 71.
 
28
Danush (2018), p. 804.
 
29
Danush (2018), p. 847.
 
30
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31
Quality/Price ratio is a measure of perceived value, of the enjoyment you receive weighed against the price you have to pay.
 
32
Article 3(4) Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs OJ L 343, 14.12.2012, pp. 1–29. ELI: http://​data.​europa.​eu/​eli/​reg/​2012/​1151/​oj.
 
33
Article 18(1)(a) Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs OJ L 343, 14.12.2012, pp. 1–29. ELI: http://​data.​europa.​eu/​eli/​reg/​2012/​1151/​oj.
 
34
However, see Art. 20(3) Bundesgesetz über Lebensmittel und Gebrauchsgegenstände (Lebensmittelgesetz, LMG) vom 20. Juni 2014 (Stand am 1. Mai 2017). “Er kann das Inverkehrbringen kosmetischer Mittel, deren endgültige Zusammensetzung oder deren Bestandteile mit Tierversuchen getestet worden sind, zur Einhaltung der Bestimmungen der Lebensmittelgesetzgebung, einschränken oder verbieten.” Available at: https://​www.​admin.​ch/​opc/​de/​classified-compilation/​20101912/​index.​html#a20.
 
35
Swiss supermarkets selling products with no country of origin on label, Le News, 13 December 2018. Available: https://​lenews.​ch/​2018/​12/​13/​swiss-supermarkets-selling-products-with-no-country-of-origin-on-label/​.
 
36
From 1 January 2011, a prescribed consumer product information standard made under the Trade Practices Act 1974 which is still in force on 1 January 2011 continues in force as if it were an information standard made under the ACL.
 
37
Art. 20(3) Bundesgesetz über Lebensmittel und Gebrauchsgegenstände (Lebensmittelgesetz, LMG) vom 20. Juni 2014 (Stand am 1. Mai 2017). “Er kann das Inverkehrbringen kosmetischer Mittel, deren endgültige Zusammensetzung oder deren Bestandteile mit Tierversuchen getestet worden sind, zur Einhaltung der Bestimmungen der Lebensmittelgesetzgebung, einschränken oder verbieten.” Available at: https://​www.​admin.​ch/​opc/​de/​classified-compilation/​20101912/​index.​html#a20.
 
38
Snyder (2016), p. 1.
 
39
WTO DS291, 292, and 293 European Communities—Measures Affecting the Approval and Marketing of Biotech Products, One-page case summary, 21 November 2006. Available at: https://​www.​wto.​org/​english/​tratop_​e/​dispu_​e/​cases_​e/​1pagesum_​e/​ds291sum_​e.​pdf.
 
40
Snyder (2016).
 
41
Aquatic toys, baby bath aids, baby dummies, baby walkers, balloon blowing kits, basketball rings and backboards, bean bags, bicycle helmets, bicycles; blinds, curtains and window fittings; bunk beds, care labelling for clothes and textiles, child restraints for use in motor vehicles, cigarette lighters, cigarettes, cosmetics, cots, exercise cycles, fire extinguishers, hot water bottles, jacks, luggage straps, motorcycle helmets, nightwear for children, portable swimming pools, prams and strollers, ramps for motor vehicles, recovery straps for motor vehicles, soccer goals, sunglasses and fashion spectacles, support stands for vehicles, swimming and flotation aids for water familiarization and swimming tuition, tobacco health warnings, toys, toys and finger paint containing lead and other elements, toys containing magnets, toys for children up to and including 36 months, treadmills. Mandatory Standards, Australian Competition & Consumer Commission. Available at: https://​www.​productsafety.​gov.​au/​product-safety-laws/​safety-standards-bans/​mandatory-standards.
 
42
If, for example, Friend A is perceived by of most of her or his social connections as an ethical person, and nevertheless buys a non-ethical product, this purchasing behaviour can be followed by her or his social connections.
 
43
ENERGY STAR Overview. Available at: https://​www.​energystar.​gov/​about.
 
45
Child Labor Free, How it Works. Available at: https://​www.​childlaborfree.​com/​.
 
46
Why Edge Certification? Available at: http://​edge-cert.​org/​.
 
47
What is the Certified Vegan Logo? Available at: https://​vegan.​org/​certification/​.
 
48
Commission Communication—Guidelines on the labelling of foodstuffs using protected designations of origin (PDOs) or protected geographical indications (PGIs) as ingredients OJ C 341, 16.12.2010, pp. 3–4. Available at: https://​eur-lex.​europa.​eu/​legal-content/​EN/​TXT/​?​uri=​CELEX:​52010XC1216(01).
 
49
Belson (2017), p. 30.
 
50
Belson (2017), p. 36.
 
51
Taleb (2016).
 
52
Art. 21(1-2) Tierschutzgesetz [Animal Welfare Act] 16 December, 2005. Available at: https://​www.​admin.​ch/​opc/​de/​classified-compilation/​20022103/​201705010000/​455.​pdf.
 
55
Sampson (2017).
 
56
Wight (2008).
 
57
Wight (2008).
 
58
Akerlof (1970), pp. 488–500.
 
59
Merton (1936), pp. 894–904. See also negative externalities that burden society in the next Section.
 
60
In July 2018, the U.S. trade commission expanded its definition of diamond to include lab grown diamonds. “As of January 2019, Tiffany and Co., the biggest jeweler in the world by sales, will disclose the origin of all of its diamonds. It could force a new wave of transparency across the jewelry world. Are lab-grown diamonds the future?”, 1843 The Economist YouTube video, 19 March 2019. Available at: https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​s1h4gze_​ktk.
 
61
Reilly (2019).
 
62
This subheading was inspired by the Guiding the Invisible Hand: Economic Liberalism and the State in Latin American History, by Love and Jacobsen (1988).
 
63
Smith (1776), Book IV, Chapter II, para IX.
 
64
The industrial revolution started around 1760 to somewhere between 1820 and 1840. Source Wikipedia.
 
65
Quality/price ratio is a measure of perceived value weighed against the price.
 
66
Sutherland is skeptical about the consumer as a rational being: “Decisions are actually taken down in the basement [amygdala DF] and the brain issues hasty post-rationalisations to explain why you adopted the course you did.” Sutherland (2011), p. 42.
 
67
Most people are partly rational in their actions. Simon (1962), pp. 177–182.
 
68
Quality/price ratio is a measure of perceived value weighed against the price.
 
69
Regulation (EU) No 1151/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 November 2012 on quality schemes for agricultural products and foodstuffs OJ L 343, 14.12.2012, pp. 1–29. Available at: ELI: http://​data.​europa.​eu/​eli/​reg/​2012/​1151/​oj.
 
70
For the PDO there needs to be a relation between the product and its origin, marked by many specifically established natural and human factors. The product cannot be reproduced outside its area of origin. Production, processing and preparation phases should be carried out in the same geographical area in which the natural and human factors are located. Blakeney (2014), 3.37, 78. See also Friedmann (2017), p. 278.
 
71
A PGI is the name of a region, specific place or, in exceptional cases, a country used to describe an agricultural product or a foodstuff originating in that region, specific place or country, which possesses a specific quality, reputation or other characteristics attributable to that geographical origin and the production and/or processing and/or preparation of which take place in the defined geographical area. Friedmann (2017), p. 278.
 
72
Fischler (2004).
 
73
Gaeta and Corsinovi (2015).
 
74
Hors d’âge; Vin jaune.
 
75
Ambré; Clairet; Caret.
 
76
Château; Clos.
 
77
Cru artisan, Cru bourgeois, Cru classé, whether or not supplemented by Grand; Premier Grand; Deuxième; Troisième; Quatrième; Cinquième; Grand cru; Villages.
 
78
Article 104 Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 17 December 2013 establishing a common organisation of the markets in agricultural products and repealing Council Regulations (EEC) No 922/72, (EEC) No 234/79, (EC) No 1037/2001 and (EC) No 1234/2007 OJ L 347, 20.12.2013, pp. 671–854. ELI: http://​data.​europa.​eu/​eli/​reg/​2013/​1308/​oj.
 
79
e-Bacchus consists of the Register of designations of origin and geographical indications protected in the EU in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013; lists non-EU countries’ geographical indications and names of origin protected in the EU in accordance with bilateral agreements on trade in wine concluded between the EU and the non-EU countries’ concerned; lists the traditional terms protected in the EU in accordance with Regulation (EU) No 1308/2013. Available at: http://​ec.​europa.​eu/​agriculture/​markets/​wine/​e-bacchus/​.
 
80
Council Regulation (EC) No 509/2006 of 20 March 2006 on agricultural products and foodstuffs as traditional specialities guaranteed. OJ L 93 of 31.3.2006. Available at: https://​eur-lex.​europa.​eu/​legal-content/​EN/​TXT/​?​uri=​LEGISSUM:​l66043.
 
81
According to Gigerenzer and Selten, heuristics are an excellent way to make decisions in a world of uncertainty. Gigerenzer and Selten (2001).
 
82
“There are many markets in which buyers use some market statistic to judge the quality of prospective purchases. In this case there is an incentive for sellers to market poor quality merchandise, since the returns for good quality accrue mainly to the entire group whose statistic is affected rather than to the individual seller. As a result there tends to be a reduction in the average quality of goods and also in the size of the market.” Akerlof (1970), pp. 488–500.
 
83
In many jurisdictions livestock farmers receive subsidies for products that generate negative externalities, (carbon dioxide, ground water contamination, inefficient use of water, health risks for consumers).
 
84
Pigou (1920).
 
85
Eidgenössische Volksinitiative “Für gesunde sowie umweltfreundlich und fair hergestellte Lebensmittel (Fair-Food-Initiative)”, Argumentarium, 2. Available at: https://​fair-food.​ch/​wp-content/​uploads/​2018/​08/​ffi_​argumentarium_​d.​pdf.
 
86
“Leider hat es die Politik bisher versäumt, den Konsumentinnen und Konsumenten eine echte Wahlmöglichkeit zu geben. Die Anbieter und Hersteller sind heute nicht verpflichtet, auf den verarbeiteten Produkten zu deklarieren, woher die wichtigsten Zutaten kommen und welche Produktionsmethoden angewendet wurden.” [Unfortunately, politics has failed to give consumers a real possibility to vote. Now, the supplier and manufacturer are not obligated to declare on the products where the most important ingredients are coming from and which production methods are being used.]
Eidgenössische Volksinitiative Für gesunde sowie umweltfreundlich und fair hergestellte Lebensmittel (Fair-Food-Initiative)”, Argumentarium, 2. Available at: https://​fair-food.​ch/​wp-content/​uploads/​2018/​08/​ffi_​argumentarium_​d.​pdf.
 
87
Eidgenössische Volksinitiative “Für gesunde sowie umweltfreundlich und fair hergestellte Lebensmittel (Fair-Food-Initiative)”, Argumentarium, 8. Available at: https://​fair-food.​ch/​wp-content/​uploads/​2018/​08/​ffi_​argumentarium_​d.​pdf.
 
89
Herbert Spencer wrote about the “survival of the fittest” after having read Darwin’s On the Origin of Species of 1859. Spencer (1864), p. 444. Darwin started to use the term in the 5th edition of On the Origin of Species in 1869.
 
90
David Stanway, China lung cancer on rise, smog suspected—China Daily, Reuters, 11 August 2017. Available at: https://​uk.​reuters.​com/​article/​uk-china-health-pollution/​china-lung-cancer-on-rise-smog-suspected-china-daily-idUKKBN1AR09U.
 
91
Mareike Ohlberg, Shazeda Ahmed, Bertram Lang, Central Planning, Local Exoerunebts, The complex implementation of China’s Social Credit System, Merics, 12 December 2017. Available at: https://​www.​merics.​org/​sites/​default/​files/​2017-12/​171212_​China_​Monitor_​43_​Social_​Credit_​System_​Implementation.​pdf.
 
92
Mirjam Meissner, China’s Social Credit System, A big-data enabled approach to market regulation with broad implications for doing business in China, Merics, 24 May 2017. Available at: https://​www.​merics.​org/​en/​microsite/​china-monitor/​chinas-social-credit-system.
 
93
Sutherland (2011), p. 6.
 
94
Friedmann (2019), p. 17.
 
95
A counterintuitive example from ETH Center for Ecological System Design: the impact on the environment of imported apples from New Zealand, which means shipping them over more than 20,000 km, was lower than for Swiss apples during a few weeks in Summer, when Swiss apples are stored for up to half a year and the New Zealand fruits are fresh harvested were shipped. Federal Popular Initiative, 10. Available at: https://​www.​bk.​admin.​ch/​ch/​d/​pore/​va/​20180923/​det621.​html.
 
96
Orcutt (2018).
 
97
“8.4 billion IoT devices were in use in 2017, up 31 percent from 2016, and this will likely reach 20.4 billion by 2020.” Ranger (2018).
 
98
For example Dieselgate which affected German car brands. Report on the inquiry into emission measurements in the automotive sector (2016/2215(INI)) 2.3.2017. Available at: http://​www.​europarl.​europa.​eu/​doceo/​document/​A-8-2017-0049_​EN.​html?​redirect.
 
100
Whoriskey (2018).
 
101
Whoriskey reports about a shipment of 36 million pounds of soybeans that were fumigated by pesticide and sailed in 2016 from Ukraine to Turkey to California and along the way transformed into USDA Organic soy. Whoriskey (2017).
 
102
Whoriskey (2017).
 
103
Deep Learning is used in layers to create an Artificial “Neural Network” that can learn and make intelligent decisions on its own. Deep Learning can be applied to the algorithmic ethics, hence the name Deep Consumer Information. Patidar (2018).
 
104
Johnson (1993).
 
105
Inspired by Hume’s saying that ‘the moral imagination diminishes with distance.’ Hume (1738–1740), 2.3.7.3, SBN 429.
 
106
QR stands for Quick Response.
 
107
According to Swiss Federal Food Safety and Veterinary Office FSVO, the future of (nutrition) labelling can be found in making smart use of the phone: “Make (more) use of smartphone technology to allow tailored information?” Compulsory labelling on food and nutritional labelling in Switzerland: current state and international cooperation, 2017. Available at: https://​www.​wto.​org/​english/​tratop_​e/​tbt_​e/​9_​Switzerland_​e.​pdf.
 
108
Ariely said that it difficult to express the value to avoid child labor or obesity in an exact number. That is the very objective of Deep Consumer Information.
Ariely D, professor of psychology and behavioural economics at the Center for Advanced Hindsight, Duke University, Durham, N.C.: “Our perception of value is dramatically subjective. It comes from lots of things from the environment.” Real Value, documentary by Jesse Borkowski 2013. Available at: https://​www.​youtube.​com/​watch?​v=​ez3CWXQrgVo.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Correcting Information Asymmetry Via Deep Consumer Information; Compelling Companies to Let the Sunshine In
verfasst von
Danny Friedmann
Copyright-Jahr
2021
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-49028-7_8