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2020 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

11. Criminalising Foreign Fighter Travel in Order to Prevent Terrorism in Europe: An Illegitimate Assault on Human Dignity?

verfasst von : Tarik Gherbaoui

Erschienen in: Human Dignity and Human Security in Times of Terrorism

Verlag: T.M.C. Asser Press

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Abstract

This chapter critically assesses the impact on human dignity and human security of the novel offence of ‘travelling abroad for terrorism’ in the European counter-terrorism context. The chapter analyses the emergence of the offence through international legal instruments recently adopted by the United Nations, the Council of Europe, and the European Union. Throughout this analysis, the chapter explores the human rights concerns related to the actus reus as well as the mens rea of the offence of travelling abroad for the purpose of terrorism. The actus reus (travelling to another State) of the offence is defined so broadly that successful prosecution hinges on proving the mens rea (the terrorist purpose) of the suspected foreign fighter. This mens rea is tainted by the legal uncertainties surrounding the definition of terrorism. In the European context, the true purpose of the criminalisation of foreign fighter travel is thus prevention rather than punishment. Suspected foreign fighters are seen as a risk to be prevented rather than as individuals who need to be brought to justice under the rule of law. As they are not treated as ends in themselves, the preventive turn of the criminal law in the foreign fighter context disregards the human dignity of suspected foreign fighters. The chapter concludes that the preventive turn not only constitutes an assault on human dignity, but also a counterproductive method to ensure human security.

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Fußnoten
1
de Guttry et al. 2016, p 2.
 
2
Radicalisation Awareness Network 2017, p 15.
 
3
The Economist (2018) Islamic State has been stashing millions of dollars in Iraq and abroad. https://​www.​economist.​com/​news/​middle-east-and-africa/​21737302-their-so-called-caliphate-crumbles-jihadists-are-saving-up-fight. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
4
UN Security Council (2018) Sixth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da’esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat, UN Doc. S/2018/80, paras 5–11.
 
5
Barrett 2017, pp 12–13.
 
6
Radicalisation Awareness Network 2017, p 15.
 
7
See Leenars and Reed 2016.
 
8
Callimachi R (2017) Not ‘Lone Wolves’ After All: How ISIS Guides World’s Terror Plots From Afar. https://​www.​nytimes.​com/​2017/​02/​04/​world/​asia/​isis-messaging-app-terror-plot.​html. Accessed 14 October 2018.
 
9
Radicalisation Awareness Network 2017, p 15.
 
10
Coolsaet and Renard 2018, p 72.
 
11
Ibid., p 4.
 
12
Neumann 2018.
 
13
Pew Research Center 2017.
 
14
Paulussen and Pitcher 2018, pp 16–19.
 
15
Roach 2011.
 
16
UN Security Council (2014) Resolution 2178 (2014), UN Doc. S/RES/2178.
 
17
European Union, Directive (EU) 2017/541 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 March 2017 on combating terrorism and replacing Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA and amending Council Decision 2005/671/JHA (EU Directive).
 
18
Additional Protocol to the Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 22 October 2015, CETS 217 (entered into force 1 July 2017) (Additional Protocol).
 
19
Charter of the United Nations, opened for signature 26 June 1945, 1 UNTS XVI (entered into force 24 October 1945).
 
20
The use of legislative powers led to considerable scholarly debate after the adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 1373 (2001) which requires States to criminalise a range of terrorist offences. See Szasz 2002 and Talmon 2005.
 
21
UN Security Council (2014) Resolution 2178 (2014), UN Doc. S/RES/2178, para 6 (emphasis in original):
Recalls its decision, in resolution 1373 (2001), that all Member States shall ensure that any person who participates in the financing, planning, preparation or perpetration of terrorist acts or in supporting terrorist acts is brought to justice, and decides that all States shall ensure that their domestic laws and regulations establish serious criminal offenses sufficient to provide the ability to prosecute and to penalise in a manner duly reflecting the seriousness of the offense:
(a) their nationals who travel or attempt to travel to a State other than their States of residence or nationality, and other individuals who travel or attempt to travel from their territories to a State other than their States of residence or nationality, for the purpose of the perpetration, planning, or preparation of, or participation in, terrorist acts, or the providing or receiving of terrorist training;
(b) the wilful provision or collection, by any means, directly or indirectly, of funds by their nationals or in their territories with the intention that the funds should be used, or in the knowledge that they are to be used, in order to finance the travel of individuals who travel to a State other than their States of residence or nationality for the purpose of the perpetration, planning, or preparation of, or participation in, terrorist acts or the providing or receiving of terrorist training; and,
(c) the wilful organization, or other facilitation, including acts of recruitment, by their nationals or in their territories, of the travel of individuals who travel to a State other than their States of residence or nationality for the purpose of the perpetration, planning, or preparation of, or participation in, terrorist acts or the providing or receiving of terrorist training.
 
22
Scheinin 2014.
 
23
UN Security Council (2014) Resolution 2170 (2014), UN Doc. S/RES/2170, paras 7–10.
 
24
Ambos 2014.
 
25
UN Security Council (2004) Resolution 1566 (2004), UN Doc. S/RES/1566.
 
26
UN Security Council (2001) Resolution 1373 (2001), UN Doc. S/RES/1373.
 
27
Bianchi 2006, p 1048.
 
28
UN Security Council (2017) Resolution 2396 (2017), UN Doc. S/RES/2396.
 
29
“Urges Member States, in accordance with domestic and applicable international human rights law and international humanitarian law, to develop and implement appropriate investigative and prosecutorial strategies, regarding those suspected of the foreign terrorist fighter-related offenses described in para 6 of resolution 2178 (2014)”. Ibid., para 6.
 
30
UN Security Council (2017) Resolution 2396 (2017), UN Doc. S/RES/2396, paras 18 and 29–30.
 
31
Krähenmann 2014, p 42.
 
32
Guillaume 2004, p 540.
 
33
United States Mission to the United Nations (2018) Remarks at the Adoption of UN Security Council Resolution 2401 on a Ceasefire in Syria. https://​usun.​usmission.​gov/​remarks-at-the-adoption-of-un-security-council-resolution-2401-on-a-ceasefire-in-syria/​. Accessed 1 March 2018
 
34
Council of Europe 2015. Additional Protocol, above n 18.
 
35
Article 5 criminalises the funding and Article 6 the organising or otherwise facilitating of foreign fighter travel.
 
36
Council of Europe Convention on the Prevention of Terrorism, opened for signature 16 May 2005, CETS 196 (entered into force 1 June 2007) (Council of Europe Convention).
 
37
Scheinin 2015.
 
38
As of February 2018, only 11 States had ratified the Additional Protocol while the other signatories are still fulfilling parliamentary and constitutional requirements. Council of Europe Treaty Office (2018) Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 217. https://​www.​coe.​int/​en/​web/​conventions/​full-list/​-/​conventions/​treaty/​217/​signatures?​p_​auth=​509VL4aq. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
39
EU Directive, above n 17.
 
40
European Council 2014, pp 5–6.
 
41
EU Directive, above n 39, recital 3. See also Dumitriu 2004, p 590.
 
42
European Union, Council Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA of 13 June 2002 on combating terrorism (repealed and replaced by Directive 2017/541) (Council Framework Decision 2002).
 
43
European Union, Council Framework Decision 2008/919/JHA of 28 November 2008 amending Framework Decision 2002/475/JHA on combating terrorism (repealed by Directive 2017/541). For a critical analysis of the Framework Decisions see Murphy 2012, Chapter 3. See also Gless 2012.
 
44
Council Framework Decision 2002, above n 42, Article 1.
 
45
Ibid., Article 2.
 
46
De Kerchove and Höhn 2016, p 314.
 
47
EU Counter-Terrorism Coordinator 2014, p 2.
 
48
European Commission 2015.
 
49
European Parliament 2017.
 
50
EU Directive, above n 39.
 
51
Although UN Security Council Resolution 2178 does not explicitly address returning foreign terrorist fighters in operative paragraph 6, its provisions may apply to foreign terrorist fighters who travel to a third State in order to participate in an armed conflict, reside there for several years and then travel to another State which is not his State of nationality or residence.
 
52
EU Directive, above n 17, recital 37; Council of Europe Convention, above n 36, Article 26(5).
 
53
The specific acts listed in the EU definition are fairly precisely defined. However, some of the acts are defined more broadly than necessary to capture terrorist acts, for example the extensive destruction to public as well as private property likely to endanger human life or result in major economic loss.
 
54
Saul 2008, p 164.
 
55
See Decoeur 2017.
 
56
Paulussen and Pitcher 2018, p 16.
 
57
EU Directive, above n 39, Article 10:
Member States shall take the necessary measures to ensure that any act of organisation or facilitation that assists any person in travelling for the purpose of terrorism, as referred to in Article 9(1) and point (a) of Article 9(2), knowing that the assistance thus rendered is for that purpose, is punishable as a criminal offence when committed intentionally.
 
58
European Commission 2015, Explanatory Memorandum, p 18.
 
59
Meijers Committee 2016, p 7.
 
60
Consolidated Version of the Treaty on European Union, opened for signature 13 December 2007, 55 OJ C 326 (entered into force 1 December 2009).
 
61
Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, opened for signature 13 December 2007, 55 OJ C 326 (entered into force 1 December 2009).
 
62
Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, proclaimed 12 December 2007, 326 OJ C 391 (entered into force 1 December 2009).
 
63
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, opened for signature 19 December 1966, 999 UNTS 171 (entered into force 23 March 1976.
 
64
European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, opened for signature 4 November 1950, ETS 5 (entered into force 3 September 1953). See UN Human Rights Committee (1999) General Comment No. 27: Article 12 (Freedom of Movement), UN Doc CCPR/C/21/Rev.1/Add.9.
 
65
For an overview of the case law on the principle of legality, see Murphy 2010, p 192.
 
66
A positive aspect of the EU Directive is that its implementation is subject to the infringement powers of the European Commission and even more importantly to the judicial review of the Court of Justice of the European Union.
 
67
Paulussen and Pitcher 2018. See also Boutin et al. 2016.
 
68
This was the case with the Framework Decision. See Murphy 2012.
 
69
Van Ginkel 2015.
 
70
Neumann 2017, pp 22–23.
 
71
UN Security Council (2017) Resolution 2396 (2017), UN Doc. S/RES/2396, Preamble and paras 40–41. See also Cuthbertson 2004, pp 15–16.
 
72
Ashworth and Zedner 2014; Carvalho 2017.
 
73
Murphy 2012, p 219.
 
74
With the exception of attempting to commit the preparatory acts mentioned in EU Directive, above n 17, Article 9(2)(b).
 
75
EU Directive, above n 39, Article 14. The aiding and abetting of travelling abroad for terrorism is rightly not criminalised.
 
76
Council of the European Union 2016, p 16.
 
77
BBC News (2016) Berlin market attack: How did Anis Amri escape? http://​www.​bbc.​com/​news/​world-europe-38425945. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
78
Ashworth and Zedner 2014, p 173.
 
79
Murphy 2012, p 54.
 
80
Ibid.
 
81
European Parliament (2017) Preventing terrorism: clampdown on foreign fighters and lone wolves. http://​www.​europarl.​europa.​eu/​news/​en/​press-room/​20170210IPR61803​/​preventing-terrorism-clampdown-on-foreign-fighters-and-lone-wolves. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
82
Caiola 2017, p 424.
 
83
Council of Europe 2015, para 29.
 
84
Ashworth and Zedner 2014, p 180.
 
85
Paulussen and Pitcher 2018, p 31.
 
86
Carvalho 2017, p 179.
 
87
Frenett and Silverman 2016.
 
88
Decoeur 2017, p 322.
 
89
Ibid., p 322.
 
90
Cameron D (2014) Speech to Conservative Party Conference 2014. http://​press.​conservatives.​com/​post/​98882674910/​david-cameron-speech-to-conservative-party. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
91
Daily Telegraph (2018) The only way of dealing with British Islamic State fighters is to kill them in almost every case. https://​www.​telegraph.​co.​uk/​news/​2017/​10/​22/​way-dealing-british-islamic-state-fighters-kill-almost-every/​. Accessed 1 March 2018.
 
92
Aksenova 2017, p 17.
 
93
Paulussen and Pitcher 2018, pp 24–25.
 
94
Ashworth and Zedner 2014, p 171.
 
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Metadaten
Titel
Criminalising Foreign Fighter Travel in Order to Prevent Terrorism in Europe: An Illegitimate Assault on Human Dignity?
verfasst von
Tarik Gherbaoui
Copyright-Jahr
2020
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6265-355-9_11

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