Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Climate Change Adaptation

There is the urgent need to adapt to climate change. Flooding affects 106 million people annually and causes the largest economic damage (USD 31 billion, annually). 6000 people are annually killed by flooding. This chapter addresses concept and definition of disasters, and flood disaster-related newly emerging issues from a theoretical and empirical perspective. More in specific, the chapter reviews foundational principles of resilient systems, increase in frequency and intensity of flood occurrence, differential effects based on geography and wealth, bifurcation of mitigation and adaptation planning and implementation, capacity and technology gaps, and climate justice issues discussed at COP27. The chapter concludes that an integrated framework and methodology for key issues are needed to help cities and communities develop a comprehensive, risk- and scientific, evidence-based flood adaptation, and recovery strategies and actions from a multiplicity of perspectives.

As international institutions and national and local governments face serial climate impact-driven crises, adaptation has gone from being the focus of a specialized group of planners and disaster risk management experts to one at the center of the global conversation about addressing climate change. Strengthening and accelerating adaptation and green recovery requires an understanding of the global context and on the ground realities in communities. This chapter reviews some of the key global agreements and trends—including the Paris Agreement, UN Sustainable Development Goals, and the movement by vulnerable countries for the funding of “loss and damage”—that define the current context for efforts to move from frameworks and proof points to widespread application and the work to secure the adaptation funding required for impact at scale. It also explores how a range of interrelated institutional, political, economic, socio-cultural, ecological, and technological factors create the enabling environment for change and describes how models for adaptation and climate risk management are evolving to encompass these dynamics.

The objective of this chapter is to present a new and integrated holistic approach to climate disaster assessment and green recovery developed by professor Kwi-Gon Kim which embraces digital technology, and cultural and local context variables within a broad frame of planning and innovation in line with international movements described in Chap. “Climate Disaster Risk Management—Risk Assessment and Green Recovery Planning:​ Core Concepts and Identification of Current Issues”. The nine steps of Professor Kim’s conceptual framework are detailed and lay the foundation for its application to flood risk assessment and green recovery and used by a number of case authors of the case studies in Part 4. The climate disaster and green recovery process consist of nine steps to help practitioners started with adaptation, (Steps 1–2)) delineate boundary of the project, (Steps 3–6)) understand and assess the impacts of current and future climate change, (Step 7) identify significant flood risks, (Step 8) prioritize flood damage reduction options, and (Step 9) monitor and evaluate periodically.

Those using the nine-step risk assessment and green recovery framework outlined in Chap. “International Initiatives and Current Context for Adaptation Planning and Green Recovery” need access to a broad set of evidence-based scientific integrated methods and technologies—including smart digital technologies—for use with each step as they seek to assess and manage the risks posed by flooding and other climate-related events in cities and communities across the globe. Although floods are one of the most frequently occurring natural hazards worldwide, successful adaptation can be achieved through avoidance, planning control, and smart and wise measures. In this book, a risk-based indicator approach to flood risk assessment is used as an example of climate-related hazards and natural disaster platform project models. Indicator-based approaches are semi-quantitative methods for evaluating climate-based land use suitability mapping and risk mapping—including the components of community development, hazard frequency and intensity, physical vulnerability, and risk probability—to compare different areas or communities. As part of this process, data for each of these indicators is collected at a particular spatial level, by administrative units. These indicators are then standardized (e.g., by reclassifying them between 1 and 0), weighted internally within objectives, and then the various objectives are also weighted among themselves. Although the individual indicators normally consist of quantitative data (e.g., population and property statistics), the resulting hazard, vulnerability, and risk probability results are scaled between 0 and 1. These relative data allow the user to compare the indicators for the various administrative units. These methods can be carried out at different levels, ranging from specific sites, local communities, cities to countries.

Nature protection and restoration are necessary for climate change adaptation and mitigation. Nature markets are valued at $7 trillion (Climate Action, 28 September 2022). NBSs reveal multiple synergies and few trade-offs in urban green space management. Nature provides a blueprint for urban resiliency and sustainability. There is a need for protecting and restoring our forests, grasslands, wetlands, wildlife, soils, water and land against exploitation (SDG 15: Life on Land). Nature-based solutions (NBSs) are used to combat climate change by conserving and restoring vital and vulnerable ecosystems. Investing in nature helps both adaptation and mitigation. They provide multiple benefits including enhancing biodiversity, sequestering carbon and making cities and communities safer and more resilient. The nature-based solutions increase the resilience and effectiveness of flood mitigation. The approaches of NBS that blends grey and green infrastructure can generate net benefits for residents. This chapter describes the steps of nature-based solutions framework and examples of NBS. The chapter gives an overview of various NBS techniques which include levee setback, floodplain restoration, wetland restoration and vegetation management. Hybrid nature-based flood-mitigation solutions including innovative digital blue-green approaches are discussed as cost-effective solutions to build back better. The chapter also describes sustainable use of natural capital through NBS.

This chapter provides an overview and explanation of the elements of the thirteen case studies from Africa, South and Southeast Asia, South America and the Middle East. It introduces the reader to the elements of comprehensive climate risk management and green recovery planning covered by the case studies including flood risk assessment, green recovery planning and local context variables and adaptive conditions analysis. It sets the context for the reader’s review of the case studies and outlines the key learning questions readers should consider.

In flood prone areas, understanding flood causing factors, assessing the flood induced risks and adopting nature-based mitigation strategies can increase the knowledge andawareness and help  individual communities to protect themselves and their properties using appropriate flood management measures before and during flood events. Dire Dawa city is in the foothills of southern mountains from where rivers crossing the city are originated. The multidimensional causes of flood hazard and limited landscape-based mitigation strategies in the study area have exacerbated the impacts of flooding. This study was conducted with the aim of assessing flood causing factors and to propose landscape-based flood mitigation strategies. Case study data was collected from the Ethiopian Meteorology Agency, land use maps of Dire Dawa city administration and government reports. Findings of the study indicated that flood risk in the study area has resulted from multiple factors such as intense rainfall, topography, encroachment to the riverbanks, institutional problems and aggravating factors resulted from power interruption during heavy rain and regime changes. More importantly, flood risk of the study area was found to be sensitive to hourly variation of rainfall distributions and varies based on the location of the sub-watersheds. Based on the prioritization of sub-watersheds’ susceptibility to flood risk through morphometric analysis, select sub-watersheds are identified as the most flood risk susceptible watersheds demanding urgent landscape-based conservation measures and sustainable water conservation structures are also identified. The overall result of the study shows that managing the root causes of flooding at the upper catchments and adopting recommended proposed water conservation structures at proposed site helps to sustainably curb flood induced risks of Dire Dawa city.

Because of its social, economic, and environmental consequences, urban flooding has become a serious issue in many regions of the world. Every year, floods destroy livelihoods, property, infrastructure, and lives in Ghana, making many people homeless. The purpose of this work is to comprehend the present status of flood research in Ghana, with an emphasis on how the academic community has tackled the causes, effects/impacts, and coping mechanisms used by individuals in urban areas. The author examines academic databases such as SCOPUS, Web of Science, Springer, Taylor & Francis, Science Direct, and Google Scholar for current studies based on a complete literature assessment and individual co-author in-depth expertise in research and practice in Ghana. The author’s findings, based on 15 papers, show that poor urban planning and development of poor and insufficient drainage systems, a lack of environmental awareness, and excessive rainfall are the leading causes of urban flooding in Ghana. The most often cited impacts/effects are physical costs, economic infrastructure devastation, and health issues. The most often reported coping techniques are property removal and protection and drain construction. The evaluation also identifies major research gaps in Ghana and proposed a new topic for future research direction and practice.

Bwaise III is a parish found in Kawempe division which is one of the five divisions that make up Kampala city. Kampala is Uganda’s biggest city as well as the capital of the country with an estimated population of 1,610,500. Kampala is a city facing many challenges including high unemployment, urban density and limited financial resources, energy and food insecurity. In addition, climate-related weather changes threaten the social development of the country and the sustainable structure of the city. This paper presents a comprehensive proposed study design to focus on flood disasters at local level in one of Kampala city divisions of Kawempe which will be scaled down to a parish level of Bwaise III. The study includes a proposal to use GIS and other software to produce a number of maps that will aid in decision-making and planning. Flood zone maps, location maps and other inventory maps will be generated and watershed and the different water catchments will also be identified. The study aims to carry out a risk assessment to determine the extent of vulnerabilities and provide solutions for disaster recovery and management in this area under study based on an indicator approach.

Floods are one of the greatest hazards in Bangladesh, however, in most cases, household-level risk-reduction strategies are inadequate for ensuring a livelihood resilient to floods. To formulate effective risk-reduction policies and programmes for riverine areas, it is crucial to measure flood risk at the local level. The monsoon floods coupled with prolonged inundation and the ravages of the COVID-19 pandemic have exacerbated the negative impacts on the flood-affected people. The creation of inundation maps are a very important tool to prevent or reduce flood hazards and risks by providing useful and reliable information to the population and remote sensing (RS)-based data provide multi-resolution satellite data for flood inundation mapping and flood risk zones identification, which are the first steps for the formulation of any flood management. RS technologies have made it easier to map large areas under flooding and provide early warnings of the disaster that helps in providing support in crisis situations and minimizing damage. Space-based sensors are comparatively more effective than ground-based techniques in providing near real-time data for monitoring the extent of floods and satellite platforms and other advances in RS have provided a wide range of applications of satellite data. The case study author conducts a flood extent mapping and damage assessment using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data captured by the Sentinel-1 satellite. The case study author recommends that Google Earth Engine, a free, cloud-based tool, is very useful for developing countries like Bangladesh to assess damages in emergency situation in a cost-effective way and that Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data can also be utilized for estimating the extent of flooding in affected areas.

The Kingdom of Cambodia is vulnerable and increasingly exposed`` to climate change impacts and Kratie Province is considered one of the provinces most vulnerable to flood as it is located along the Mekong River. This case study includes an overview of flood disaster in Cambodia, a situation analysis of flooding in Kratie Province and identifies adaptation strategies and evaluates current efforts at the national, regional, and local levels. The case study author collected data on the ground with farmers, local authorities, and agricultural officials through face-to-face interviews, participatory workshops with farmers, local authorities, and agricultural officials. To cope with floods in the area the local agriculture agency engaged multiple stakeholders to support effective implementation of flood management strategies. To cope with flooding, the local communities engage in a number of hazard reduction measures and strategies including the diversification crops, the use of seed varietals tolerant to flood and the cultivation of short-term crops and improving water management.

Cambodia is exposed to nearly all types of hydro-meteorological hazards from floods to droughts, heavy storms, typhoons, and lightning strikes. Since 1970, the country has experienced an economic loss of US $170 million per year due to disasters, and in 2011 alone, disasters caused a 4.3% loss to the country’s GDP. The author studies the Phnom Penh floodplain and Mekong Delta and explores the features and importance of floodplain resilience in terms of conveying and attenuating flood flows. The author also undertakes a flood risk assessment and identifies critical elements of flood risk management that are contextualized to local conditions. After a systematic assessment of the national and sub-national enabling environment, the case study author recommends reform of Disaster Risk Management and calls on the government to provide greater funding focusing on communities that are most vulnerable to climate-related disasters.

In the past decades, the flooding in Jakarta has become a huge issue with major floods in 2002, 2007, 2013, 2014, and 2020 causing billions of dollars of direct and indirect economic damage, and huge social upheaval. In this context, case study author Azhari Cempaka undertakes a hazard, exposure and vulnerability analysis to estimate a median increase in flood risk of 183% in 2030 compared to baseline conditions and synthesizes data to present a forward look at risk drivers. The author employs a Damagescanner model to assess the impacts of changes in physical and socioeconomic drivers on flood risk. In addition, the author identifies the ways in which land subsidence and land use change impact the likelihood of flooding disasters and explores the potential benefits of an SMS-based flood early warning system as a high-value hazard reduction measure. From this analysis, it was found that an SMS-based flood early warning system could reduce annual flood risk in Jakarta by US$ 3.5 million (1.9%) under a realistic scenario, and up to US$ 22.6 million (12%) under an optimistic scenario.

Due to its population’s vulnerability and susceptibility to natural hazards, the Philippines is ranked among the most at-risk nations in the world with meteorological and meteorologically induced hazards intensifying over the past decade, resulting in a rise in fatalities and economic devastation. Case study author focuses on Jordan, a municipality in Guimaras Island in the Philippines which spans12,611 ha and uses the government’s adopted methodology, the Climate and Disaster Risk Assessment (CDRA). Using this framework, the author evaluates local risk, vulnerability, and exposure to water-related disasters. In addition to sharing flood disaster risk maps, the study ends with policy recommendations to mitigate the flood disaster risks as intensified by climate change including water policy and planning as well as the use of nature-based solutions and the implementation of early warning systems to support effective flood risk management.

Case study author brings focus to Iloilo City in the Philippines, telling the story of a highly urbanized area that is increasingly facing the negative impacts of flooding occurrence due to precipitation and river overflow. Case study author presents data on climate hazard and an analysis of vulnerability as the foundation for an evaluation of risk in the area and maps areas of flood risk in Iloilo City, Philippines. While the local Government of Iloilo City has taken major steps in addressing climate change vulnerability and impacts and flood hazards through tangible projects and the development of sustainability policy and institutional frameworks, the case study author identifies gaps that need to be addressed for flood management to be holistic and effective in addressing  the  impacts of climate change. Needed changes include local climate action and disaster management planning, a focus on flood control measures, and the development of the  institutional capacity required  for operation and maintenance over time.

Case study author, Kambiz Karimi takes a look at the broader country context and then brings focus to the Badakhshan province, an area that is one of the most climate-related disasters prone zones in Afghanistan. In Badakhshan province, landslides, avalanches, droughts, floods, and earthquake are recurring hazards, causing immense loss of live and property every year. According to National Vulnerability and Resource Assessment (NVRA) 2007–2008, Badakhshan province has the highest level of inequality in Afghanistan,  and is also one of the most food insecure provinces of Afghanistan. Flood reduction strategies must include strengthening poverty-alleviation programs—and targeting them to those residents most in need—to break the vicious cycle of poverty and disasters. They should aim to both maximize benefit coverage to the poor and minimize leakage of the benefits to the non-poor. Policy reforms proposed in the case study include: development of disaster management strategy at the national and local levels, improved water management and use efficiency, land and water management at the watershed level, and strengthened local planning and regulations among others.

The residents of Shighnan district of Afghanistan live on the ridges of high mountains, putting them at greater danger of climate-related natural disasters such as avalanches, landslides, and floods. Case study author, Nazir Safi, focuses on the power of community developed and implemented early warning systems as a critical element of climate risk management. Current efforts to implement a community-based early warning system while not without challenges have had important successes in Shighnan district. After evaluating the current state and efficacy of the community based early warning systems he identifies key challenges to their impact and efficacy including: Limitations in the mobile network coverage and, the need to establish trust in the accuracy of the information as well as confidence that the evacuation centers would be able to meet their needs.

Case study author Del Piero R. Arana Ruedas. This paper presents a proposed study design for a Spatio-temporal drought assessment using Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) and Adaptation over Mantaro Valley, Peru. An in-depth literature review is undertaken followed by a description of the types of data that will be used to undertake a risk assessment analysis with proposed objective to create a risk assessment at multiple time intervals for Mantaro Valley. Arana proposes that the results be analyzed and used as a source of insights and needed changes to the current Peruvian National Adaption Plan (NAP). In addition, the Regional Adaptation Plan, where the Mantaro Valley is located will be contrasted with the drought risk assessment result to understand its effectiveness to finally provide adaptation strategies evaluated throughout social, economic, and environmental criteria.

The prevalence of flooding, other natural disasters, and extreme weather events are anticipated to increase due to human-induced climate change. Flooding is a worldwide phenomenon with severe human, ecological, and economic impacts. Developing processes to assess and manage the risk of these hazards is a critical global challenge. Addressing this challenge effectively could mitigate significant negative human and economic impacts, and technology has a fundamental role in addressing this challenge. However, the potential of leading-edge technologies needs to be explored in the role that they could play in supporting rigorous urban flood risk assessment processes. Although much progress has been made in applying technology in cities (albeit to differing extents), several unanswered challenges and opportunities, such as technical readiness in the public sector and data availability in the Global South, have yet to be addressed or captured. This chapter explores various established and emerging urban computing and digitalization techniques and how they are currently being combined and applied on the ground in cities worldwide. Based on this review, challenges and opportunities are identified to suggest how cutting-edge digital technologies could be better integrated with flood risk assessment strategies in the future.

As climate change brings greater risks of flooding and natural disasters, insurance is a critical mechanism for both proper urban planning and development to reduce risks and for funding recovery after disasters. The high cost and complexity of traditional insurance, however, has severely limited its adoption, especially in developing economies. In this chapter, we look at how distributed ledger technology (DLT) could be used to structure insurance mechanisms that help protect against disasters. We propose a combination of automated risk transfers using technology and local groups that work with policyholders to mitigate and adapt to climate change.

Book co-editors summarize learnings from the thirteen case studies focused on flooding hazard risk assessment and green recovery planning in regions across Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Middle East, and South America. Case study authors engaged in flood risk assessments and local context variable analyses including an exploration of the socio-cultural, economic, institutional, and technological dimensions that define adaptive capacity and green recovery planning and implementation. The case study studies provide strong evidence of the devastating effects on people, animals, and places of climate change, extreme weather, and flooding hazards. They also reveal the current challenges that Global South communities face in creating robust risk assessments including the limited availability of robust data sets, analytical tools, and technology solutions  at the local level.

The case studies show that adaptation can accomplish much more than simply mitigating and preventing future disasters. It also presents major opportunities to achieve a larger multipurpose agenda and put countries featured in the case studies on a new green, low-carbon and resilient path to climate change, adaptation and green growth. Adaptation, mitigation and climate-friendly urban development hand in hand can create powerful synergies that meet global Sustainable Development Goals, Paris Agreement Goals, Green New Deal Goals and goals of post-COVID-19 recovery. This chapter deals with an integration platform which is needed to address this large and critical step to achieve sustainability, climate safety and resiliency. A particular emphasis is put on climate change and development: The evolution of an intersecting policy domain, which incorporates adaptation and mitigation solutions.

Across the globe policymakers and institutional stakeholders see that approaches where outsiders deploy top-down solutions for communities facing complex local challenges and where climate change, poverty and weak systems overlap, consistently fail to create the desired impact. While public engagement is often part of local processes, recognition of the importance and power of community voice and agency to address power imbalances and systems of exclusion requires deeper and more fundamental shifts in the design of public initiatives. Governments and stakeholders across the world need to rethink the role of communities in problem identification and solution making and accelerate reforms and investments to center community voice and agency. California’s Transformative Climate Communities program is a powerful example of government valuing participatory decision making and community-led resilience planning and action. After an introduction to community engagement in the context of key California adaptation and resilience policies, the chapter showcases California’s Transformative Climate Communities program, features the initiatives on the ground in cities of Fresno and Stockton, and offers concrete advice for other governments as they design and undertake similar initiatives.

In the final chapter of the book the co-editors look back at the span of the book and explore key insight and learnings. They review the ground covered in the book, including the thirteen featured case studies from across the Gobal South and identify new tools and frameworks that support climate risk management, the use of new technologies and the inclusion of community voice for greater impact by expert contributors. They also present a set of policy and practice next steps needed to strengthen the theory and practice of comprehensive climate risk management and green recovery planning including the need to develop new tools to support the development and capacity of in-country professionals and the critical importance of assessing and strengthening the economic, social, institutional, and technological conditions that facilitate or limit the development and deployment of adaptive measures.