Demystification of the Relationship Between Psychopathy and Happiness

Psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by antisocial behavior and a wide range of deviant personality traits, including lack of empathy or remorse, callousness, aggressiveness, manipulation, egocentricity and impulsivity (Berg et al. 2013a, b; Perez 2012). While there are no official statistics on the prevalence of psychopathy, it is estimated to be around 1% in the general population (Cooke 1998). The diagnosis is known to be much more frequent in males than females (Benning et al. 2005a, b; Gao and Raine 2010). Incarcerated psychopaths are commonly guilty of violence, drug usage, domestic abuse and assault (Camp et al. 2013; Hall et al. 2004). Furthermore, psychopathy has until recently been considered untreatable (Patrick et al. 2009). However, examination of previous studies claiming the impossibility of treating psychopaths revealed that none of these studies had a proper research design; hence weakening the notion that psychopathy is untreatable (D’Silva et al. 2004). Preliminary results of recent studies were able to further disprove the impossibility of treating clinically diagnosed psychopaths by the use of schema therapy, which consists of an intensive form of individual psychotherapy combining cognitive, behavioral, and humanistic approaches (Bernstein et al. 2012; Chakhssi et al. 2014).

Although psychopaths are commonly viewed as criminals, Cleckley (1941) introduced the controversial concept of successful psychopaths. Successful psychopaths are individuals who more easily achieve high ranking positions in the society due to their emotional anomalies, such as social charm, low neuroticism, and shallow effect (Coid et al. 2012; Patrick et al. 2009; Sadeh and Verona 2008). In line with this suggestion, empirical evidence from large scale studies (Berg et al. 2013a, b; Gervais et al. 2013; Tonnaer et al. 2013) suggests that psychopathic traits are not dichotomous but rather dimensional in nature. Examples of adaptive psychopathic traits are high pain tolerance (Hare 1965), high interest for seeking rewards (Hare and Thorvaldson 1970), lower fear of pain (Hare 1966), and higher stress immunity (Hare et al. 1978). Such traits allow psychopathic individuals to function better in stressful environments, for example, allowing them to successfully fulfill executive functions in hypercompetitive workplaces.

The difference between a non-successful psychopath and a successful psychopath could be due to the strength of their subtype’s expression. Several studies have conceptualized psychopathy as consisting of two major factors: Factor 1 (i.e. primary psychopathy) which represents affective-interpersonal and adaptive features, and Factor 2 (i.e. secondary psychopathy) which represents social deviance and maladaptive features (Benning et al. 2003; Cleckley 1941; Cox et al. 2013; Harpur et al. 1989; Lykken 1995; Ray et al. 2009). Further studies examined the possibility of dividing both factors in two, creating a four-facet model (Hare and Neumann 2005; Williams et al. 2007). This four-facet model was based on the two factors of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R), which has typically been used in institutionalized settings (Hare et al. 1990). Other measures of the psychopathic personality, such as the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI), are divided upon a two factors model and are considered reliable to assess psychopathic personality traits within undergraduates and community samples (Lilienfeld and Andrews 1996; Patrick et al. 2009). However, while the second factor, assessing secondary psychopathy or psychopathic traits, from the PCL-R and the PPI are highly correlated to one another, evidences suggest a very low correlation between their primary factors, as they do not assess the same type of primary psychopathic traits (Poythress et al. 2010).

Considering the positive traits of successful psychopaths, along with a lack of remorse and egocentricity, one might propose that these individuals are satisfied and happy with themselves. Results of a recent study (Love and Holder 2014) suggest otherwise. In this study, undergraduate participants completed a number of questionnaires, including the Oxford Happiness Inventory (Francis et al. 1998), the Subjective Happiness Scale (Lyubomirsky 2004) the Levenson Psychopathy Self-Report Scale (Levenson et al. 1995) and the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (Williams et al. 2007). Correlation analysis of these questionnaires indicated a negative association between psychopathy and subjective well-being, as well as positive affect, happiness, and life satisfaction. The investigators attributed these findings to the poor interpersonal relationships linked with psychopathic traits. However, the authors did not perform separate analyses by psychopathic subtypes or gender, which may have yielded different results (Anestis et al. 2011). Such distinctions are necessary as Factor 1 is associated with low levels of fear and emotional dysregulation, while Factor 2 is associated with impulsivity, anxiety and aggressive behavior (Berg et al. 2013a, b). Individuals higher on Factor 1 are therefore more similar to successful psychopaths, and might be happier than individuals higher on Factor 2 traits.

While few studies have investigated well-being-related features in psychopathy, past findings support the notion of a negative correlation between these features and psychopathy. For instance, individuals displaying higher scores on psychopathy scales also show less expression of a meaning in life (Bartels and Pizarro 2011). A strong negative correlation was also found between the expression of callous and unemotional traits and a lack of hope in life (Berg et al. 2013a, b). While these results stem from various studies analyzing several constructs related to psychopathy, no study to our knowledge has systematically investigated measures of well-being (i.e. happiness, meaning in life, personal growth, and hope) in relation to the expression of psychopathic personality traits by subtype.

In addition to investigating the role of psychopathic subtypes in well-being, the role of gender was considered because gender differences have been reported in studies of both well-being and psychopathy. Males have been reported to score substantially higher than females on most psychopathic personality assessment scales (Cale and Lilienfeld 2002; Lee and Salekin 2010; Nikolova 2013). However, few of the commonly used instruments to assess psychopathy or psychopathic personality traits assess or interpret results based on gender, creating a potential gender bias (Nikolova 2013). Gender differences are also observed on variables related to psychological well-being (Dambrun 2007; Emslie et al. 2002). Females tend to display higher psychological distress, lower resilience to stressful events, and higher lifetime rates of clinical depression, alongside lower general self-esteem (Dambrun 2007; George et al. 1996; Kudielka and Kirschbaum 2005; Martinez and Dukes 1997). These results highlights the potential gender bias when assessing measures related to well-being in a group of participants without analyzing results by gender.

The purpose of this study is to examine alternative views between psychopathic personality traits and well-being. Since the majority of earlier studies in the field of psychopathy were performed on inmates (Berg et al. 2013a, b), a strong stigmatizing association developed between criminal offenses and psychopathy, leading to the belief that psychopathy is categorized by negative aspects (Furnham et al. 2009; Vitacco 2007). Therefore, in the present study, positive characteristics, such as happiness, were investigated in a community sample to determine the legitimacy of the relationship between lowered expression of well-being features and the expression of psychopathic personality traits. Given that psychopathy may be conceptualized on a continuum, and most individuals display psychopathic traits to different degrees, this study examined patterns between subtypes of psychopathic personality traits and well-being features as proposed by Love and Holder (2015) and Berg et al. (2013a, b).

The present study investigates the relationship between psychopathic traits and happiness-related characteristics such as durable and fluctuating happiness, meaning in life, personal growth and hope. Durable happiness includes characteristics such as contentment and inner peace. Fluctuating happiness represents sudden increase in happiness, followed by a sudden decrease. Meaning in life can be described as the presence of a meaning in life or the search for a meaning in life. Hope includes constructs such as focusing on a goal and planning for a goal. Together, these constructs form an extended range of happiness-related characteristics.

Three hypotheses have been formulated for this study. First, we seek to confirm a gender difference within the PPI-SF, and explore potential gender differences within measures of happiness-related features. Second, we expect a positive correlation between the expression of the adaptive component of the psychopathic personality and measures of happiness and well-being. Third, we expect a negative correlation between the expression of the maladaptive component of the psychopathic personality and happiness-related measures. As different patterns among subtypes and happiness-features may arise based on gender, males and females were analyzed independently.

The present study sought to confirm the gender differences within the PPI-SF and happiness-related features, and also to determine if the expression of psychopathic personality traits is negatively correlated to measures of well-being and happiness. Gender differences were found on the PPI-SF total score, on multiple PPI-SF subscales, and on various measures of well-being. Furthermore, as expected, PPI-I was positively correlated to all measures with the exception of fluctuating happiness, with which PPI-I showed a negative correlation, and searching for a meaning in life, with which PPI-I showed no correlation. PPI-II displayed the opposite pattern, where all measures but two were negatively correlated to this subtype, with the exception of a positive correlation with fluctuating happiness and a search for a meaning in life. Indeed, beside an absence of correlation between the pathway subscale and PPI-II within males, both genders displayed similar correlations with regards to PPI-I and PPI-II. However, examination of the PPI-SF total score revealed a few differences between genders in relation to correlations with happiness-related features. Males did not display any correlation between the PPI-SF and happiness features, except personal growth, hope, and planning to meet goals. Females displayed negative correlations between the PPI-SF and durable happiness, contentment, and presence of a meaning in life, as well as a positive correlation with fluctuating happiness and planning to meet goals. The findings of this community-based study hence emphasize the importance of conducting analyses in the field of psychopathy by subtypes and gender.

Consistent with previous findings, males scored higher than females on the PPI-SF and several of its subscales (Cale and Lilienfeld 2002; Hicks et al. 2012; Lee and Salekin 2010). The reason behind the difference of psychopathic personality trait scores is not well established, although several hypotheses have been promoted. Several questionnaires assessing psychopathy and/or psychopathic personality traits focus on physical aggression and physical activities, which might be more typical of males, rather than indirect aggression and less physical activities, which may be more typical of females (Grann 2000; Vitale et al. 2002). Indeed, items of the PPI-SF such as ‘‘If I were a fire-fighter, I think I might actually enjoy the excitement of trying to rescue someone from the top floor of a burning building’’ explores a situation involving high-risk physical action, which may create a bias towards males scores. Alternatively, these differences might be caused from unknown genetic or environmental gender influences (Berg et al. 2013a, b).

Gender differences were also observed on three scales related to well-being. Males scored significantly higher than females on the inner peace subscale of the SADHS and pathway component of the AHS, while females displayed higher levels of fluctuating happiness than males. Previous studies have found a higher level of psychological distress, anxiety and stress in females than males (Dambrun 2007; Emslie et al. 2002). Males’ lower scores in the fluctuating happiness scale might indicate that they have better emotional control than females. A meta-analytic review on emotional expression in children concluded that, while males tend to express more externalizing emotions (such as anger) than females at a young age, in adolescence this pattern changes so that females express more externalizing emotions than males (Chaplin and Aldao 2013). It is possible that this difference in the emotional profiles of males and females remains during adulthood, explaining the higher fluctuation in happiness and lower inner peace and goal planning within females.

While the strength of the correlations between the PPI-SF subtypes and happiness features differed slightly by gender, both males and females displayed a very similar pattern in psychopathic traits subtypes and well-being measurements. The correlations between PPI-I and happiness features supports the notion of successful psychopathy. Indeed, PPI-I’s positive correlation with durable happiness and negative correlation with fluctuating happiness supports the alleged emotional control of Factor 1 psychopathic individuals (Berg et al. 2013a, b; Patrick et al. 2009; Witt et al. 2009). Furthermore, the correlation between PPI-I and the presence of a meaning in life, personal growth, hope, and goal-related behaviours further emphasize the benefits of Factor 1 psychopathic traits. It is possible that the psychopathic traits related to Factor 1 of the PPI-SF, such as social potency and extroversion, contribute to a higher degree of self-esteem and hence, well-being (Lilienfeld et al. 2012). The nature of attachment among those with elevated psychopathic traits may also play a role. A previous community-based investigation assessing the relationship between attachment anxiety and happiness in adults supports a negative correlation (r = −.39) between the two constructs (Wei et al. 2011). While psychopathic individuals might display a more superficial type of attachment, the primary psychopathy traits related to lower anxiety and higher social potency might be due to a general notion of reduced attachment anxiety, which is consistent with higher degrees of happiness and well-being.

While the aforementioned results are not consistent with the previously reported negative association between psychopathic personality traits and well-being, the results from PPI-II and measures of well-being support the negative correlations reported in psychopathic individuals (Love and Holder 2014). The negative correlation of PPI-II with durable happiness and positive correlation with fluctuating happiness is consistent with the notion of emotional instability reported in secondary psychopathy (Douglas et al. 2012; Patrick et al. 2009). Furthermore, while the lack of a meaning in life can reflect an overall lower sense of well-being, the search for a meaning in life is unexpected. Secondary psychopathy has been linked to several maladaptive constructs such as reactive aggression, impulsiveness and temperamentality (Benning et al. 2005a, b; Berg et al. 2013a, b). The search for a meaning in life can indicate that individuals with high levels of PPI-II traits desire to seek more happiness in life. Once again, while females showed a negative correlation between PPI-II and the pathway component that males did not, results of both genders show the same negative pattern between PPI-II and measures of happiness, meaning in life, personal growth and hope.

This study comprehensively investigated constructs of happiness and related emotions in regards to gender and psychopathic traits. These findings emphasize the importance of performing separate analyses by gender and by psychopathy subtypes in order to fully comprehend the different emotional trends related to the expression of psychopathic traits. These findings support the importance of considering psychopathy a dimensional construct as opposed to a categorical one. The results demonstrate that a higher expression of PPI-I related traits correlate with several adaptive features in terms of happiness-related emotional constructs, whereas a higher expression of PPI-II related traits correlate with several maladaptive characteristics.

This study was designed to include previous recommendations in the field of psychopathy and happiness, most notably by performing analyses by gender and psychopathic subtype on individuals from the community (Love and Holder 2014, 2015). Despite these improvements, this study was nevertheless limited in a few respects. First, an online self-report questionnaire was used. While self-report measurements are commonly used, clinical and experimental evaluation might give better results. Also, only one method for evaluating the psychopathic personality was used. While the PPI-SF is a widely used instrument, other questionnaires for assessing psychopathic traits, such as the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale, the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure, and the Short-Dark Triad could provide further information with regards to the correlation between psychopathy and happiness (Jones and Paulhus 2014; Levenson et al. 1995; Patrick 2010). Finally, the present study does not examine psychopathy itself, but the expression of psychopathic personality traits. Replicating this study on clinically diagnosed psychopaths, by the use of the PCL-R, could allow a better understanding of the relationship between psychopathy and happiness.

Although these results are promising, they need to be replicated in an experimental setting in order to assess their validity. Nevertheless, this study presents the first attempt to investigate happiness, hope, personal growth, and meaning in life by both gender and psychopathic factors. Examination of the results clearly shows that levels of happiness vary greatly between individuals. Fortunately, improving one’s happiness is within everyone’s reach and can be done in multiple ways, such as improving health-related behavior, engaging in physical activities, and increasing socialization (Veenhoven 2008).