Introduction
Building description
Description | U-value (W/m2K) | Air leakage at 50 Pa (l/s m2) | Mechanical ventilation | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ground floor | External walls | Windows | Doors | Roof | |||
Passive house criteria | 0.11 | 0.11 | 0.80 | 0.80 | 0.05 | 0.3 | Balanced with heat recovery |
Method
Reference and future climate scenarios
Reference | 2050s | 2090s | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1996–2005 | RCP2.6 | RCP4.5 | RCP8.5 | RCP2.6 | RCP4.5 | RCP8.5 | |
Outdoor temperature, °C | |||||||
Minimum | − 17 | − 14 | − 14 | − 13 | − 14 | − 13 | − 12 |
Average | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | 8 | 10 | 12 |
Maximum | 28 | 29 | 29 | 28 | 28 | 31 | 33 |
Solar radiation, W/m2 | |||||||
Minimum | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Average | 105 | 101 | 103 | 103 | 100 | 105 | 104 |
Maximum | 987 | 892 | 883 | 874 | 834 | 902 | 910 |
Wind speed, m/s | |||||||
Minimum | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Average | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 4 |
Maximum | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 | 14 |
Relative humidity, % | |||||||
Minimum | 33 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
Average | 81 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 86 |
Maximum | 100 | 105 | 103 | 103 | 104 | 102 | 102 |
Final energy calculations
Description | Parameter | Values/assumptions | Remarks |
---|---|---|---|
Indoor temperature set points | Heating | 21 °C/18 °C | Living area/common area |
Cooling | 27 °C | Estimated | |
Heat gains | Persons | 80 W/person | Average value based on (SVEBY 2013) with variable annual profile considered in simulation |
Lighting and appliance | 2.94 W/m2 | Standard equipment. Average values estimated based on data from (de Almeida et al. 2008) with annual variations considered in simulation | |
Hot water circulation | 1.05 W/m2 | Standard equipment. Average values estimated based on (Isover 2016) with annual variations considered in simulation | |
Hot water | Annual average intensity | 2.85 W/m2 | Standard taps and shower heads. Average value based on (SVEBY 2013) with annual variations considered in simulation |
Electric power use | Annual average intensity | 3.41 W/m2 | Standard electric equipment and lighting. Estimated based on data from (de Almeida et al. 2008) |
Ventilation, pumps, heat exchanger and fans | Air change ratea | 0.1/0.35 l/s m2 | Based on (BBR Boverkets Byggregler 2015) |
Heat recovery | 76% | Based on (Swedish Energy Agency 2010) | |
Fan pressure | 400 Pa | Estimated based on (StruSoft 2012) | |
Fan efficiency | 33% | Based on (Brelih 2012) |
Design strategies and measures
-
Efficient household equipment and technical installations based on best available technology (BAT)
-
By-passing the ventilation heat recovery (VHR) unit when the cooling set point is exceeded.
-
Solar shading of windows to be activated when the cooling set point is exceeded.
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Different combinations of window thermal (U-values) and solar (g-values) transmittances. The window U-value requirement according to the Swedish passive house criteria is 0.8 W/m2 K (FEBY 12 2012) and in this study, window U-value of 0.6 W/m2 K with g-value ranges of 0.2–0.6 are also considered based on reported commercially available and potential future window technologies (Baetens et al. 2010; Cuce and Riffat 2015; Hammarberg and Roos 2003; Minne et al. 2015).
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Decreasing or increasing the proportion of window areas on different façades by 20 and 40%.
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Different façade orientations to optimise space heating and cooling demand.
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Mechanical cooling with air conditioners to meet remaining cooling demand after the implemented design strategies.Table 4Key input parameters and assumptions for household equipment and technical installations based on best available technology (BAT)DescriptionParameterValues/assumptionsRemarksHeat gainsLighting and appliance1.35 W/m2Efficient equipment. Average values with annual variations considered in simulation. Estimated based on data from (de Almeida et al. 2008).Hot water circulation0.68 W/m2Efficient equipment. Average values with annual variations considered in simulation. Estimated based on data from (Isover 2016).SunBased on climate file.Hot waterAnnual average intensity1.75 W/m2Efficient taps and shower heads based on (Swedish Energy Agency 2015a).Electric power useAnnual average intensity1.69 W/m2Efficient electric equipment and lighting. Estimated based on data from (de Almeida et al. 2008).Ventilation, pumps, heat exchanger and fansHeat recovery80%Fan pressure200 PaEstimatedFan efficiency50%Based on (Camfil 2014).
Primary energy calculations
Energy supply technology | Capacity | Efficiency |
---|---|---|
Stand-alone power plant | (MWelec) | (ηelec) |
Biomass steam turbine (BST) | 400 | 0.40 |
Cogeneration plants | (MWheat) | (ηelec/ηheat) |
CHP-BST | 81 | 0.29/0.78 |
Heat-only boilers | (MWheat) | (ηheat) |
Wood powder | 50 | 0.88 |
Wood chip | 50 | 1.08 |
End-use heating and cooling | (η) | |
District heating heat exchanger | 0.95 | |
Room air conditioners | 3 |
Results
Description | Annual final energy demand (kWh/m2) | Annual primary energy use (kWh/m2) |
---|---|---|
Space heating | 13.6 | 8.7 |
Space cooling | 14.9 | 13.6 |
Tap water heating | 21 | 13.4 |
Ventilation electricity | 5.2 | 14.2 |
Household electricity | 31.6 | 86.1 |
Total | 86.4 | 136.1 |
Description | 1996–2005 | RCP2.6 | RCP4.5 | RCP8.5 |
---|---|---|---|---|
2050s | ||||
Initial with standard technology | 136.1 (128.0) | 135.0 (126.8) | 135.7 (126.5) | 135.7 (126.2) |
+ BAT | 79.0 (73.8) | 77.4 (72.3) | 77.8 (71.8) | 77.6 (71.4) |
+ By-pass of VHR unit | 76.2 (72.3) | 74.9 (70.8) | 75.3 (70.4) | 75.3 (70.0) |
+ Shading | 72.2 (70.7) | 70.5 (69.1) | 70.2 (68.3) | 69.7 (67.7) |
+ U- and g-values | 71.2 (71.1) | 69.1 (69.0) | 67.9 (67.7) | 67.3 (67.1) |
+ Orientation | 71.3 (71.3) | 69.1 (69.0) | 67.8 (67.7) | 67.2 (67.1) |
+ Window areas | 69.9 (69.8) | 67.7 (67.7) | 66.5 (66.4) | 66.0 (65.9) |
2090s | ||||
Initial with standard technology | 136.1 (128.0) | 134.7 (126.6) | 137.9 (127.3) | 139.5 (126.6) |
+ BAT | 79.0 (73.8) | 77.2 (72.3) | 79.8 (72.6) | 79.9 (70.9) |
+ By-pass of VHR unit | 76.2 (72.3) | 74.8 (70.8) | 77.6 (71.2) | 78.1 (69.7) |
+ Shading | 72.2 (70.7) | 70.5 (69.1) | 71.3 (68.7) | 70.8 (66.7) |
+ U- and g-values | 71.2 (71.1) | 69.2 (69.1) | 68.3 (67.8) | 66.3 (65.0) |
+ Orientation | 71.3 (71.3) | 69.2 (69.2) | 68.1 (67.7) | 65.9 (64.9) |
+ Window areas | 69.9 (69.8) | 67.9 (67.8) | 66.6 (66.4) | 64.6 (63.7) |
Description | 1996–2005 | RCP2.6 | RCP4.5 | RCP8.5 |
---|---|---|---|---|
2050s | ||||
Initial with standard technology | 158.2 (150.1) | 155.9 (147.7) | 155.6 (146.4) | 155.1 (145.6) |
+ BAT | 100.4 (95.2) | 97.3 (92.1) | 96.6 (90.6) | 95.8 (89.6) |
+ By-pass of VHR unit | 97.8 (93.9) | 94.8 (90.7) | 94.2 (89.3) | 93.5 (88.2) |
+ Shading | 93.8 (92.3) | 90.5 (89.0) | 89.1 (87.2) | 87.9 (86.0) |
+ U- and g-values | 94.2 (94.1) | 89.9 (89.7) | 87.4 (87.2) | 86.1 (85.9) |
+ Orientation | 94.5 (94.4) | 89.9 (89.9) | 87.4 (87.3) | 86.1 (86.0) |
+ Window areas | 91.6 (91.5) | 87.2 (87.2) | 84.8 (84.9) | 83.6 (83.6) |
2090s | ||||
Initial with standard technology | 158.2 (150.1) | 155.5 (147.5) | 157.7 (147.1) | 157.0 (144.1) |
+ BAT | 100.4 (95.2) | 97.2 (92.2) | 98.5 (91.3) | 95.8 (86.7) |
+ By-pass of VHR unit | 97.8 (93.9) | 94.8 (90.8) | 96.4 (90.0) | 94.0 (85.5) |
+ Shading | 93.8 (92.3) | 90.5 (89.1) | 90.1 (87.4) | 86.7 (82.6) |
+ U- and g-values | 94.2 (94.1) | 90.1 (90.0) | 87.6 (87.1) | 82.4 (81.1) |
+ Orientation | 94.5 (94.4) | 90.2 (90.1) | 87.5 (87.1) | 81.9 (80.9) |
+ Window areas | 91.6 (91.5) | 87.5 (87.4) | 84.8 (84.5) | 79.6 (78.7) |