2. Determinants of the Gender Gap in the Proportion of Managers Among White-Collar Regular Employees

This chapter analyzes determinants of gender differences in the proportion of managers among white-collar regular workers by using linked data on employers and employees in Japanese firms. First, the chapter shows that the reasons for “having few or no female managers” given in response to employer surveys conducted by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, such as a “high rate of job quitting among women”, cannot be considered genuinely major causes, even though they are among the minor ones. This is because the proportion of managers among female college graduates is far lower than that among male high school graduates, even given the same number of years working for the current employer. The fundamental problem lies in “pre-modern” human-resource management whereby gender, as an ascribed status, is given greater weight than educational attainment in determining who will become managers. The chapter also shows that only about 20% of the gender difference in the proportion of managers is explained by the difference in human capital characteristics between men and women; that in order to become managers, long working hours seem to be required more for women than for men; that the proportion of managers increases for men and decreases for women, depending on the age of their last child, in a way that suggests a reinforcement of traditional gender roles by employers; and that firms with centers dedicated to promoting work–life balance among employees have smaller gender gaps in the proportion of managers.