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2013 | OriginalPaper | Buchkapitel

11. Digital Divide and the Global Crisis

verfasst von : Julia Neumann

Erschienen in: Yearbook on Space Policy 2010/2011

Verlag: Springer Vienna

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Abstract

Discrepancies in access to telecommunications have been perceived since the late 1970s and gained attention when two Commissions set up by UNESCO and the ITU respectively presented their reports: the “McBride-Commission” in 1980 and the “Maitland-Commission” in 1984. The latter observed that two-thirds of the world population had no access to telephone services, and that Tokyo had more telephones than the whole of the African continent. In the age of digitisation, these discrepancies are usually referred to as the “digital divide.”

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Vorheriges Kapitel What Future for GEOSS? Results from the November 2010 GEO Ministerial Meeting

Nächstes Kapitel Space Debris: Legal Framework, Issues Arising and New ISO Guidelines in 2010/2011

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, ed. Many Voices, One World. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 1980.

Cf. Res. No. 20 of the Plenipotentiary Conference of the International Telecommunication Union, Nairobi, 1982.

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International Telecommunication Union. ICT Development Index 2009. Geneva: ITU, 2009: 1.

Ibid: 45.

Long Term Evolution (LTE) is a technology supposed to replace UMTS, which is still classified as third generation.

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) is a new standard for regional networks.

Kelly, Tim. “Twenty Years of Measuring the Missing Link.” Maitland+20. Ed. Gerald Milward-Oliver. Bradford on Avon: Anima Centre, 2005: 23, 27.

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Bleckmann, Albert. “Souveränitätsprinzip.” AVR 23 (1985): 450 (473); Hailbronner, Kai. “Foreign Investment Protection.” Reforming the International Economic Order. Eds. Thomas Oppermann, and Ernst-Ulrich Petersmann. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1987: 99, also points to the opening up of new markets by foreign investment.

Röller, Lars-Hendrik, and Leonard Waverman. “Telecommunications Infrastructure.” Discussion Paper No. 2, March 2000: 14; Yu, Peter K. “Terrorism and the Global Digital Divide.” 11 Feb. 2002. FindLaw 19 Oct. 2011 http://writ.news.findlaw.com/commentary/20020211_yu.html.

Tomuschat, Christian. “Obligations Arising for States without or against their Will.” RdC 241 (1993): 195, 222.

Simma, Bruno. “Community Interest.” RdC 250 (1994): 217, 244; Delbrück, Jost. “Laws in the Public Interest.” Liber amicorum Günther Jaenicke. Eds. Volkmar Götz, Peter Selmer, and Rüdiger Wolfrum. Berlin: Springer, 1998. 17 et seq.; Dahm, Georg, Delbrück, Jost, and Rüdiger Wolfrum. Völkerrecht. Vol. I/3. Berlin: de Gruyter, 200:. 778.

Simma, Bruno. “Community Interest.” RdC 250 (1994): 217, 235, also points to the common nature of the problematic situations.

Tunis Commitment, WSIS-05/TUNIS/DOC/7-E of 18 November 2005 http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs2/tunis/off/7.html, and Tunis Agenda for the Information Society, WSIS-05/TUNIS/DOC/6(Rev.1)-E of 18 Nov. 2005 http://www.itu.int/wsis/docs2/tunis/off/6rev1.html.

International Telecommunication Union. Revised Draft of the ITU Strategic Plan for 2008–2011. Doc. PP-06/28 of 27 June 2006, para. 2.1.7.

Von Kries, Wulf, Schmidt-Tedd, Bernhard, and Kai-Uwe Schrogl. Grundzüge des Raumfahrtrechts. München: Beck, 2002. 155; Hudson, Heather E. “From Missing Links to Digital Divides.” Maitland+20. Ed. Gerald Milward-Oliver. Bradford on Avon: Anima Centre, 2005. 37, 41.

Baumann, Ingo. Das internationale Recht der Satellitenkommunikation. Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 2005. 548.

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Paterna, Mischa. Globalisierung der Telekommunikationsmärkte – Internationalisierung der Netzbetreiber am Beispiel der Deutsche Telekom AG. Doctoral Disertation, St. Gallen, Hallstadt, 1996: 59.

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Smith, M. L. “International Regulation of Satellite Communication.” Utrecht Studies in Air and Space Law 7 (1990): 7.

Cf. Matte, Nicolas Mateesco. “Aerospace Law: Telecommunications Satellites.” RdC 1980: 123, 215.

For a definition of “intellectual property”, see Art. 2 (viii) of the Convention Establishing the World Intellectual Property Organization of 14 July 1967, as amended on 28 September 1979.

Schmidt-Diemitz, R. “Geistiges Eigentum und entwicklungspolitischer Wissenstransfer.”GRURInt 1988: 287, 290.

Stumpf, H. The Know-How Contract in Germany, Japan and the United States. Deventer: Kluwer Law and Taxation Publishers, 1984: 10.

Roffe, P. and T. Tesfachew. “Revisting the Technology Transfer Debate: Lessons for the New WTO Working Group.” Bridges 5.2 (2002): 5.

Particularly international telecommunications law, international economic law (esp. within the WTO), and space law.

Since a detailed analysis would go beyond the scope of this paper, focus will be on the main aspects.

Cf. Bleckmann, Albert. Allgemeine Staats- und Völkerrechtslehre: Vom Kompetenz- zum Kooperationsvölkerrecht. Köln: Heymann, 1995: 579, who has dealt intensively with the “subjective right” in public international law.

A detailed analysis can be found in Neumann, Julia. Bridging the Digital Divide. Cologne: WoltersKluwer, forthcoming 2012.

Constitution of the International Telecommunication Union, done in Geneva on December 1992 as amended in Kyoto 1994, Minneapolis 1998 and Marrakesh 2002.

Malanczuk, Peter. “Telecommunications.” Encyclopeadia of Public International Law IV. Ed. Rudolf Bernhardt. Amsterdam: North Holland, 2000. 791, 792; Jakhu, Ram S. and Virginia R. Serrano. “International Regulation of Radio Frequencies for Space Services.” Project 2001, Legal Framework for Commercial Satellite Telecommunications. Cologne: DLR, 2000: 71.

“assignment of a radio frequency (channel) is the “authorization given by an administration for a radio station to use a radio frequency or radio frequency channel under specified conditions”, Art. S.18 of the ITU Radio Regulations.

Baumann, Ingo. Das internationale Recht der Satellitenkommunikation. Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 2005: 284.

Ibid: 276.

“Allocation” of a frequency band is the “entry in the Table of Frequency Allocations of a given frequency band for the purpose of its use by one or more terrestrial or space radiocommunications services […] under specified conditions”, Art. S1.16 of the ITU Radio Regulations.

“Allotment” is the “entry of a designated frequency channel in an agreed plan, adopted by a competent conference, for use by one or more administrations for a terrestrial or a space radiocommunication service in one or more identified countries or geographical areas and under specified conditions”, Art. S1.17 of the ITU Radio Regulations.

Jakhu, Ram S. and Virginia R. Serrano. “International Regulation.” Project 2001: Legal Framework for Commercial Satellite Telecommunications. Cologne: DLR, 2000: 73.

Malanczuk, Peter. “Telecommunications.” EPIL IV. Ed. Bernhardt, Rudolf. Amsterdam: North Holland, 2000: 791, 793.

Hobe, Stephan. Die rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen der wirtschaftlichen Nutzung des Weltraums. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1992: 177.

Baumann, Ingo. Das internationale Recht der Satellitenkommunikation. Frankfurt/Main: Lang, 2005: 274.

Jakhu, Ram S. and Virginia R. Serrano. “International Regulation.” Project 2001: Legal Framework for Commercial Satellite Telecommunications. Cologne: DLR, 2000: 72.

Hobe, Stephan. Die rechtlichen Rahmenbedingungen der wirtschaftlichen Nutzung des Weltraums. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1992: 181.

The principles of the OST are generally viewed as part of customary international law, thus binding also states that are not members to the Treaty, Jakhu, Ram S. “Safeguarding the Concept of Public Service.” 5 Sing. J. Int’l & Comp. L.: 71, 91.

Matte, Nicolas Mateesco. “Aerospace Law.” RdC 1980: 123, 147.

Hobe, Stephan. “Article I.” Cologne Commentary on Space Law (CoCoSL), Vol. 1. Eds. Hobe, Stephan, Schmidt-Tedd, Bernhard, and Kai-Uwe Schrogl. Cologne: Heymann, 2009. 42; Hobe, Stephan. “Outer Space as the Province of Mankind – An Assessment of 40 Years of Development.” Proc. 50th Coll. IISL, 2008: 448.

Art. 66 (2) TRIPS: “Developed country Members shall provide incentives to enterprises and institutions in their territories for the purpose of promoting and encouraging technology transfer to least-developed country Members […].”

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development-International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development, ed. Resource Book on TRIPS and Development. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2005: 725, 730.

Ibid: 725, 730.

Para. 11.2 of the Decision on implementation-related issues and concerns of 14 November 2001, WT/MIN/(01)/17. See, e.g., IP/C/W/431/Add.3 of 7 January 2001, and IP/C/W/431/Add.3/Suppl.1 of 14 Apr. 2001.

Other TRIPS provisions are concerned with technical cooperation to improve the protection of intellectual property, not with project-oriented transfer of technology, cf. Werner, Walter. “Grundlagen zum Technologietransfer in der WTO.” RIW 2006: 187, 188.

United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. The Outcome of the Uruguay Round: An Assessment. United Nations, 1994: 156.

Koehler, Matthias. Das Allgemeine Übereinkommen über den Handel mit Dienstleistungen. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1999: 140.

Ibid: 141.

Hereinafter referred to as the Annex.

Katkin, Kenneth. “Communication Breakdown?” 38 Vand. J. Transnat’l L.: 1323, 1361. The equivalent for INMARSAT were so-called “Public Services Agreements” (PSAs).

See Art. I (h) ITSO-Agreement.

Katkin, Kenneth. “Communication Breakdown?” 38 Vand. J. Transnat’l L.: 1323, 1361.

See Art. III ITSO-Agreement.

Declaration on Principles of International Law Concerning Friendly Relations and Co-Operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the United Nations. UNGA Res. 2625 (XXV) of 24 Oct. 1970. New York: United Nations.

Principle (d) of the Friendly Relations Declaration.

Ipsen, Knut, Menzel, Eberhard and Volker Epping. Völkerrecht. Munich: Beck, 2010: Para. 32 marginal note 47.

E.g. Art. 17 of the Charter of Economic Rights and Duties of States, UNGA Res. 3281 (XXIX) of 12 Dec. 1974; G8 Okinawa Charter on Global Information Society of 2000; Paras. 1, 17 of the Geneva Declaration of Principles of 12 Dec. 2003, WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/4; Geneva Plan of Action of 12 Dec. 2003, WSIS-03/GENEVA/DOC/5; Para. 7 of the Tunis Commitment of 18 Nov. 2005, WSIS-05/TUNIS/DOC/7; Paras. 83 et seq. of the Tunis Agenda for the Information Society of 18 Nov. 2005, WSIS-05/TUNIS/DOC/6(Rev.1).

Neumann, Julia. Bridging the Digital Divide. Cologne: WoltersKluwer, forthcoming 2012.

Verwey, W. D. “Least Developed Countries.” Essays in International Law in Honour of Judge Manfred Lachs. Ed. Jerzy Makarczyk. The Hague: Nijhoff, 1984: 531, 548.

Lyall, Francis. “Deriving more ‘Common Benefit’ from Space Telecommunications.” Proc. 48th IISL Coll. 2005, 2006: 462; “A World Communications Commission?” Proc. 37th IISL Coll. 1993, 1994: 42.

Lyall, Francis. “Deriving more ‘Common Benefit’ from Space Telecommunications.” Proc. 48th IISL Coll. 2005, 2006: 463 et seq.; “Expanding Global Communications Services.” Proc. UNISPACE III, 1999 (A. CONF-184/7): 77 et seq.; “Rational, Efficient and Economic Use of Space”. Liber amicorum Karl-Heinz Böckstiegel. Eds. Benkö, Marietta and Walter Kröll. Cologne: Heymann, 2001: 386, 389.

Frieden, Rob. “Shared Global Radiocommunication Resources.” 24 U. Pa. Int’l Econ. L. (2003): 289.

This is also considered problematic by Lyall, Francis. “Deriving more ‘Common Benefit’ from Space Telecommunications.” Proc. 48th IISL Coll. 2005, 2006: 461, 464.

Cf. Jakhu, Ram S. “Global Public Interest in Outer Space.” J. Space L. 32 (2006): 31, 75.

Global Digital Solidarity Fund. 14 Jan. 2012 http://www.dsf-fsn.org.

For instance, the former German Federal Minister for Economic Cooperation and Development announced in 2009 that Germany would not reduce its development expenditure abroad since it was aware that this could result in a humanitarian catastrophe. 14 Jan. 2012.

http://www.welt.de/politik/article3111426/Wieczorek-Zeul-verteidigt-Entwicklungshilfe.html.

Cf. Jakhu, Ram. “Global Public Interest”. La Revue Québécoise de Droit International 18 (2005): 173.

Stern, Nicolas H. The Economics of Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 2007.

Titel: Digital Divide and the Global Crisis
verfasst von: Julia Neumann
Verlag: Springer Vienna
Buch: Yearbook on Space Policy 2010/2011
Print ISBN: 978-3-7091-1362-2

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-7091-1363-9

Copyright-Jahr: 2013
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-7091-1363-9_11

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