1 Introduction
2 State of Knowledge
2.1 Previous Research Using Different Approaches
2.2 Previous Research on Cross-National Differences
3 Cross-National Differences
3.1 Country Grouping
3.2 Hypotheses
4 Data and Methods
4.1 Data and Sample
4.2 Measures
4.3 Analytic Strategy
5 Results
5.1 Descriptives
Group name | Nordic | Continental | Southern | Anglo-Saxon | Visegrád Four | Baltic States |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Countries | DK, FI, SE, NO | BE, FR, DE, NL | ES, PT | GB, IE | CZ, HI, PL, SK | EE, LT |
Life satisfaction score (range 0–10), means and standard deviations in parentheses
| ||||||
7.99 (0.03) | 7.08 (0.05) | 7.09 (0.05) | 7.21 (0.08) | 7.09 (0.05) | 6.59 (0.10) | |
Parents’ educational attainment (O), shares in %
| ||||||
Low | 0.16 | 0.24 | 0.69 | 0.40 | 0.28 | 0.10 |
Medium | 0.46 | 0.57 | 0.16 | 0.36 | 0.56 | 0.59 |
High | 0.38 | 0.19 | 0.15 | 0.24 | 0.15 | 0.31 |
Own educational attainment (D), shares in %
| ||||||
Low | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.39 | 0.22 | 0.14 | 0.12 |
Medium | 0.50 | 0.61 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 0.54 | 0.47 |
High | 0.44 | 0.26 | 0.35 | 0.41 | 0.33 | 0.41 |
Mobility (M)
| ||||||
Upward | 0.29 | 0.29 | 0.42 | 0.38 | 0.35 | 0.25 |
Downward | 0.16 | 0.13 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.18 |
Non-mobile | 0.54 | 0.57 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.57 | 0.57 |
N | 2699 | 4032 | 2102 | 1813 | 3931 | 1473 |
5.2 Linear Regression Models
Nordic | Continental | Southern | Anglo-Saxon | Visegrád Four | Baltic States | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | |
Panel 1: ‘Mobility effects’, controlling for parental education (omitting own education) | ||||||||||||
‘Mobility’ (Ref.: non-mobile)
| ||||||||||||
Upward | 0.14 | 0.08 |
0.53
| 0.08 |
0.45
| 0.09 |
0.67
| 0.11 |
0.63
| 0.09 |
0.86
| 0.14 |
Downward |
−0.21
| 0.09 |
−0.63
| 0.10 |
−0.38 | 0.20 |
−0.35 | 0.18 |
−0.39
| 0.14 |
−0.59
| 0.15 |
Parents’ educational attainment (Ref.: low educated)
| ||||||||||||
Medium | 0.10 | 0.09 |
0.49
| 0.08 | 0.24 | 0.13 |
0.76
| 0.11 |
0.53
| 0.10 |
1.03
| 0.20 |
High |
0.25
| 0.12 |
1.10
| 0.11 |
0.63
| 0.16 |
1.25
| 0.16 |
1.32
| 0.14 |
2.04
| 0.22 |
Intercept |
7.23
| 0.36 |
7.70
| 0.35 |
6.09
| 0.53 |
4.80
| 0.55 |
5.72
| 0.41 |
4.28
| 0.61 |
ESS round | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||||
Country | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||||
N | 2699 | 4032 | 2102 | 1813 | 3931 | 1473 | ||||||
Adj. R-sq | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.10 | ||||||
Panel 2: ‘Mobility effects’, controlling for own education (omitting parental education) | ||||||||||||
‘Mobility’ (Ref.: non-mobile)
| ||||||||||||
Upward |
−0.01 | 0.07 |
−0.08 | 0.07 | 0.02 | 0.13 |
−0.10 | 0.11 |
−0.11 | 0.09 |
−0.22 | 0.14 |
Downward |
−0.05 | 0.09 |
−0.04 | 0.10 |
−0.08 | 0.18 |
0.36
| 0.18 |
0.30
| 0.13 |
0.50
| 0.17 |
Own educational attainment (Ref.: low educated)
| ||||||||||||
Medium | 0.23 | 0.13 |
0.55
| 0.10 |
0.37
| 0.14 |
0.66
| 0.14 |
0.48
| 0.13 |
0.98
| 0.20 |
High |
0.35
| 0.14 |
1.07
| 0.11 |
0.59
| 0.14 |
1.33
| 0.16 |
1.27
| 0.15 |
2.02
| 0.22 |
Intercept |
7.13
| 0.37 |
7.68
| 0.36 |
6.06
| 0.53 |
4.92
| 0.55 |
5.78
| 0.41 |
4.28
| 0.61 |
ESS round | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||||
Country | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | ||||||
N | 2699 | 4032 | 2102 | 1813 | 3931 | 1473 | ||||||
Adj. R-sq | 0.03 | 0.09 | 0.07 | 0.07 | 0.09 | 0.10 |
5.3 Diagonal Mobility Models
Nordic | Continental | Southern | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | |
Weights
a
| ||||||||||||
O (q) | 0.00 | 0.25 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.14 | 0.08 |
0.75
| 0.24 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.55 | 0.48 |
D (1–q) |
1.00
| 0.25 |
1.00
| 0.00 |
0.86
| 0.08 | 0.25 | 0.24 |
1.00
| 0.00 | 0.45 | 0.48 |
Net Mobility (Ref.: non-mobile)
| ||||||||||||
Upward | −0.01 | 0.07 |
0.37
| 0.17 | 0.26 | 0.23 | ||||||
Downward | −0.05 | 0.09 | −0.48
| 0.17 | −0.23 | 0.24 | ||||||
Diagonal
b
(Ref.: low educated)
| ||||||||||||
Medium | 0.24 | 0.14 | 0.23 | 0.13 |
0.58
| 0.11 |
0.50
| 0.10 |
0.38
| 0.10 | 0.28 | 0.19 |
High |
0.38
| 0.14 |
0.35
| 0.14 |
1.13
| 0.11 |
1.11
| 0.11 |
0.61
| 0.11 |
0.63
| 0.15 |
Intercept |
7.57
| 0.38 |
7.60
| 0.38 |
7.00
| 0.36 |
7.07
| 0.36 |
7.39
| 0.52 |
7.41
| 0.52 |
AIC | 9912 | 9913 | 16,550 | 16,547 | 8833 | 8838 | ||||||
Pr(>Chi)c
| 0.57 |
0.03
| 0.87 | |||||||||
N | 2699 | 4032 | 2102 |
Anglo-Saxon | Visegrád Four | Baltic States | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 1 | Model 2 | |||||||
β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | β | SE | |
Weights
a
| ||||||||||||
O (q) |
0.25
| 0.09 | 0.42 | 0.26 |
0.26
| 0.09 | 0.28 | 0.25 |
0.33
| 0.08 |
0.59
| 0.29 |
D (1–q) |
0.75
| 0.09 |
0.58
| 0.26 |
0.74
| 0.09 |
0.72
| 0.25 |
0.67
| 0.08 | 0.41 | 0.29 |
Net Mobility (Ref.: non-mobile)
| ||||||||||||
Upward | 0.23 | 0.23 | 0.08 | 0.20 | 0.43 | 0.34 | ||||||
Downward | 0.04 | 0.26 | 0.09 | 0.22 | −0.14 | 0.37 | ||||||
Diagonal
b
(Ref.: low educated)
| ||||||||||||
Medium |
0.74
| 0.15 |
0.77
| 0.15 |
0.41
| 0.14 |
0.43
| 0.14 |
1.01
| 0.23 |
1.11
| 0.24 |
High |
1.39
| 0.16 |
1.38
| 0.16 |
1.28
| 0.15 |
1.28
| 0.15 |
2.06
| 0.23 |
2.12
| 0.24 |
Intercept |
5.57
| 0.54 |
5.47
| 0.54 |
6.02
| 0.42 |
5.98
| 0.42 |
4.78
| 0.61 |
4.63
| 0.62 |
AIC | 7653 | 7655 | 16,941 | 16,944 | 6241 | 6243 | ||||||
Pr(>Chi)c
| 0.43 | 0.57 | 0.27 | |||||||||
N | 1813 | 3931 | 1473 |