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2019 | Buch

Drinking Water Minerals and Mineral Balance

Importance, Health Significance, Safety Precautions

herausgegeben von: Dr. Ingegerd Rosborg, Dr. Frantisek Kozisek

Verlag: Springer International Publishing

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Über dieses Buch

Following the successful first edition of this book on drinking water quality and health, this new edition puts more focus on the importance of minerals in drinking water. It includes new scientific material and presents additional studies on the negative health effects of reverse osmosis water. The various safety organizations working on drinking water all warn about unhealthy constituents, as well as elements that can cause corrosion or scaling on pipes and installations. However, drinking water may also provide a substantial portion of the daily mineral intake, especially for the elderly and children, or those at risk of deficiencies due to unhealthy eating habits or starvation. Thus, a holistic approach to drinking water is presented in this book and the scope is extended from standards for undesirable substances to the basic mineral composition of water, examining 22 nutrient elements and ions and 21 toxic substances. The function of the nutrients in the body, symptoms of deficiency and overload, and advantages of the minerals from drinking water are presented, as well as symptoms of toxic elements from drinking water. The authors also suggest healthy ranges of minerals and mineral ratios for drinking water. The book offers a valuable resource for the health evaluation of drinking waters, for private well owners, public water producers and safety organizations alike.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Background
Abstract
Minerals and drinking water play an important role in the body. There are around 20 essential minerals for humans. Their origin is mostly the bedrock, and they can all be present to high or low concentrations in ground as well as surface water. Normal weight adults need 2.0–2.5 L/day of water for proper hydration, and it is known for centuries that water can be a source of minerals, where they are present as ions, in general readily absorbable. In the eighteenth and nineteenth century well off people in Europe went to health resorts to drink specific mineral waters containing sufficient levels of one or more essential minerals, water chosen for a specific health disorders. On the other hand, case histories from alpine climbing or polar expeditions which used melted snow as the only source of drinking water, with no minerals at all in it, appeared in scientific literature in mid twentieth century. The symptoms were derived from acute water and mineral imbalance and water intoxication, and include weakness, fatigue, convulsions, unconsciousness, and even death. Such water is comparable to RO (Reverse Osmosis) treated, desalinated water of today. Low levels of specific mineral elements have been proven to cause some diseases and symptoms. Thus, districts of Norway had high frequencies of softening of bone tissue among domestic animals (later identified as P deficient soils and water), and parts of China had increased levels of heart failure (low Se in soils and water). Dental remains of Native Americans from parts of Kentucky indicate Mn and Zn deficient soils and water, as cultivated maize had extremely low levels. During the twentieth century, hard water, with elevated levels of especially Ca, Mg and HCO3, presently with focus on Mg, is proven protective against diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases, but also diabetes, osteoporosis and even cancer.
Ingegerd Rosborg, Frantisek Kozisek, Olle Selinus, Margherita Ferrante, Dragana Jovanovic
Chapter 2. Mineral Composition of Drinking Water and Daily Uptake
Abstract
Conductivity gives a rough idea of the amount of dissolved ions in water (mS/m) or (μS/cm). Distilled water is <1 μS/cm, Reverse Osmosis treated 1–10 μS/cm, water from some sorts of sandstone or from granite (soft water) 5–15 μS/cm, and water from limestone (hard water) 20–200 μS/cm. Thus, the variation of the contribution of minerals from drinking water is large. A Swedish study on well waters, bottled waters and municipal waters showed the following contributions to the daily intake (2 L consumption): Ca 0–72%, Mg 0–69%, Na 0–65%, Cu 0–250%, Fe 0–46%, without considering that minerals in water generally are more readily absorbed in the intestines than minerals from food. Some springs and bottled waters with elevated concentrations of especially Ca, Mg and HCO3 may be regarded medical waters and used by people suffering from acidosis and subsequent diseases.
Bengt Nihlgård, Ingegerd Rosborg, Margherita Ferrante
Chapter 3. Macro-minerals at Optimum Concentrations – Protection Against Diseases
Abstract
There is a high content of minerals in so-called hard groundwater/drinking water, in areas with especially limestone, some kinds of sandstone and shales. Studies have shown lower incidence rates of different diseases in such areas. Calcium, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate from drinking water decrease the risk of especially cardiovascular diseases, osteoporosis, probably also cancer and diabetes. Hydrogen carbonate (HCO3) counteracts metabolic acidosis, and decreases loss of Ca and Mg via the urine. Sulphate (SO4) together with Mg may be active against constipation, but at too high level this water may cause diarrhoea. Ca and F (see further Chap. 4) in drinking water explains a great deal of the variation in the numbers of decayed, filled and missing tooth surfaces. However, there are some optimal ranges of the minerals to be only beneficial for health as high concentrations may be related to other health risks. Scientific studies also show that microelements like Se, Mo, Li and Cr from drinking water are important. Water softeners with NaCl, where Ca and Mg are more or less eliminated and exchanged for Na, can provide sodium (Na) levels of over 300 mg/L and cause especially elevated blood pressure. Water should not be softened to levels <8 °dH (<1.4 mmol/L). In the era of desalination, which produces drinking water with exceptionally low levels of mineral elements, even if the water is re-mineralized or pH-adjusted to avoid corrosion, such water may be harmful to sensitive individuals; e.g. those with low mineral intake from food. This will be expensive for society, mostly due to higher costs for healthcare, which recently has been estimated in a Danish study, but also, e.g., due to corrosion of pipes and installations. Suggested ranges for Ca, Mg, HCO3 and SO4 are: Ca 30–80 mg/L, Mg 10–50 mg/L, HCO3 100–300 mg/L and SO4 25–100 mg/L, with Ca:Mg: 2–3:1. So far WHO (World Health Organisation) has not established minimum accepted concentrations for these elements.
Ingegerd Rosborg, Frantisek Kozisek
Chapter 4. Micro-minerals at Optimum Concentrations – Protection Against Diseases
Abstract
Micro-minerals are as necessary as macro-minerals, but in lower doses, micro-doses. Drinking water may be a substantial source. Goitre is uncommon where iodine (I) is >50 μg/L. Levels of about 1 mg/L of fluoride (F) in drinking water is protective against dental caries, but more than 1.5 mg/L may cause dental stains or in the worst case bone deformations. Low selenium (Se) and molybdenum (Mo) is connected to heart diseases and cancer. Lithium (Li) in drinking water decreases the incidence of violent crimes and suicide. Boron (B, <1 mg/L) and chromium (Cr-III) from drinking water may be beneficial. Copper (Cu) and iron (Fe) are nutrients, but concentrations >1 mg/L may cause diarrhoea and subsequent symptoms. Elevated manganese (Mn) may negatively affect the nervous system.
Ingegerd Rosborg, Margherita Ferrante, Vasant Soni
Chapter 5. Potentially Toxic Elements in Drinking Water in Alphabetical Order
Abstract
Most toxic elements in drinking water are regulated by the World Health Organization, WHO. Elevated levels of arsenic (As) are linked to skin disorders and lung cancers. Cadmium (Cd) may cause renal effects. Lead (Pb) can cause decreased IQ in children, hypertension, and damaged red blood cell production. Nitrite (NO2) and nitrate (NO3) forms complex with haemoglobin, methaemoglobin, which is unsuitable for transportation of oxygen in the blood. Radon (Rn) can cause lung cancer, uranium (U) especially kidney diseases, antimony (Sb) increased cholesterol levels, and barium (Ba) intestinal and cardiovascular diseases. However, elements like Ca and Mg in drinking water may decrease negative health effects of a toxic element, and should not be decreased if they are not present in excessive amounts.
Ingegerd Rosborg, Frantisek Kozisek, Vasant Soni
Chapter 6. Technical and Mineral Level Effects of Water Treatment, Corrosion Control
Abstract
Hard water with salts of Ca and Mg may cause scaling, and is often softened. Water with toxic substances, e.g. heavy metals, is harmful, and is often treated with different filtering methods, nowadays often reverse osmosis (RO). There are more than 21,000 desalination plants around the world, providing more than 350 million people with drinking water, and there are more to come. RO-treated waters without pH-adjustment tend to be corrosive; causing elevated levels of metals released from especially pipes, e.g. Pb, Fe and Cu, but also lack minerals, causing decreased daily intake and loss of minerals from the body. Even pH-adjusted RO water has very low mineral content. Food boiled in such water also tends to lose minerals. There are indexes to be used as guides to choose a re-mineralization method after RO. However, methods used today don’t take mineral levels in treated drinking water preferable for human consumption into account, as corrosion aspects are only considered. Treatment with dissolution of dolomitic-calcitic limestone (free from toxic elements) giving 30–80 mg/L Ca, 100–300 mg/L HCO3, 10–50 mg/L Mg and 25–100 mg/L SO4, with Ca/Mg 2–3:1 would be preferable for drinking water production.
Asher Brenner, Kenneth M. Persson, Larry Russell, Ingegerd Rosborg
Chapter 7. Health Effects of De-mineralization of Drinking Water
Abstract
Desalinated water, mainly RO, but recently also produced from air humidity by condensation, is extremely low in minerals, comparable to rain water or distilled water, and even when pH-adjusted such water has low mineral content. Reduced mineral intake, due to drinking de-mineralized water, is not automatically compensated by one’s diet. Especially not since there are scientific studies that show decreasing levels of a number of essential minerals in vegetables. Animal studies showed that mean haemoglobin content of red blood cells was approximately 19% lower in animals receiving non-supplemented de-mineralized water compared to animals given tap water. Higher mortality in acute myocardial infarction patients was found in regions where the drinking water was desalinated water, attributed especially by reduced magnesium intake. “Water intoxication”, or delirium caused by hyponatraemia, may occur following intense physical efforts, like a marathon or working hard, and ingestion of several litres of low-mineral water. Early symptoms include tiredness, weakness, headache, brain oedema, convulsions and in severe cases coma and finally death. Electrolyte imbalance, hyponatraemia, hypokalaemia, hypocalcaemia and hypomagnesemia are the most common co-morbidities in cancer patients, which underlines the importance of minerals from drinking water. Declining dental health was reported in populations consuming desalinated water, due to low Ca and F levels in water. Drinking low-mineral water in the long run will increase the risk of acidosis, acidified tissues, as indicated by pH < 6 in urine. Thus, metabolic acidosis was reported in infants whose drinks were prepared from distilled or low-mineral bottled water. Acidosis may be a precursor to many diseases, e.g. cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, osteoporosis and cancer. Minerals in water are also needed to prevent corrosion and dissolution of pipe material, which makes the water unhealthy, and they are also needed for partial protection against uptake or transportation in the body of toxic elements, e.g. lead (Pb) and uranium (U).
Ingegerd Rosborg, Frantisek Kozisek, Margherita Ferrante
Chapter 8. The Positive Effects of Drinking Water on Mineral Balance; Optimum Nutrient Ratios and Protection Against Toxic Elements by Nutrient Elements
Abstract
Mineral ratios are important because minerals can operate both antagonistically and synergistically with each other. Ca and Mg are synergists, but elevated Ca:Mg ratio in especially mineral-poor water will increase the risk of acute myocardial infarction due to suppressed Mg absorbtion. High concentrations of Mg and Ca in water may be protective against elevated levels of Fe, Pb, U and Cd, since especially Ca acts antagonistically against Pb, Cd and U, and Mg against Fe. The risk of rectal cancer from THMs is increased when Mg is low. The ratio (Ca + Mg + K):Al was higher in alkaline waters and women’s hair than in acid, and women consuming alkaline well waters were healthier. In addition, the risk of getting cancer from elevated tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), and trihalomethanes (THM) may be lower than the risk for cardiovascular diseases, due to low levels of Ca, Mg and HCO3 in drinking water.
Ingegerd Rosborg
Chapter 9. Drinking Water Regulations Today and a View for the Future
Abstract
Present drinking water regulations include highest accepted levels of toxic metals and organic pollutants, harmful bacteria, etc., as well as the highest accepted levels of water agents, e.g. Fe, Mn, Cl or Ca, which may cause precipitation, high turbidity or discolouring. However, water with some minimal levels of Ca, Mg or HCO3 is protective against cardiovascular diseases, which is the biggest killer of people around the world, as well as osteoporosis and depressed cognitive function in the elderly, and probably also diabetes mellitus, etc. and should not be decreased in case they are not present in some very excessive levels. In addition, microelements like Se, Mo or I, appearing mostly in alkaline (hard) waters, are beneficial in preventing specific diseases. Other natural elements like Cl or SO4 contribute positively to water taste and osmolality. Thus, future regulations should include lowest acceptable concentrations or recommended ranges of a number of elements, as well as element ratios. Especially the lowest acceptable concentrations of Ca, Mg and HCO3 where we have the best evidence of protective health effects should be set to prevent unnecessary removal of them from drinking water.
Ingegerd Rosborg, Frantisek Kozisek
Metadaten
Titel
Drinking Water Minerals and Mineral Balance
herausgegeben von
Dr. Ingegerd Rosborg
Dr. Frantisek Kozisek
Copyright-Jahr
2019
Electronic ISBN
978-3-030-18034-8
Print ISBN
978-3-030-18033-1
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18034-8

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