1 Introduction
2 Background
3 Data Sources
3.1 Survey Design and Primary Data Description
3.2 Climate Data
Variable name
|
Critical periods for maize
|
maize_first10d_rain
| First 10 days after sowing: too little rain prevents seed germination (the most critical period for maize) |
maize_flower_rain
| Flowering stage: too much rain is damaging (spring and autumn) |
maize_midseason_rain
| Between 60 and 80 days after sowing: 20 days of good rainfall is necessary |
Critical periods for paddy
| |
rice_midseason_tmin
| 50–60 days after planting too low temperatures are damaging (only in the spring season) |
rice_heading_tmax
| Heading stage: 70–80 (50–70) days after planting in spring (autumn) too high temperatures are damaging |
rice_harvest_rain
| Ripening stage: 30 days before harvest heavy rains are damaging |
4 Empirical Analyses
4.1 Gross-Margin Analysis
-
TR jT = total revenue ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
Q jT = yield of crop j under technology T (kg/ha)
-
TVC jT = total variable costs ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
\( {P}_{X_i} \) = farm-gate price of input i ($/unit)
-
X ijT = quantity of input i (per ha) used in production of crop j under technology T
-
GM jT = gross margin ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
TC jT = total costs ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
LC jT = cost of family labour ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
NI jT = net income ($/ha) for crop j under technology T
-
UC jT = production costs per unit of output ($/kg) for crop j under technology T
-
RC jT = returns to cash capital ($/$) for crop j under technology T
-
RL jT = returns to labour ($/person day) for crop j under technology T
-
L jT = labour productivity (kg/person day) for crop j under technology T
-
BCR jT = benefit-cost ratio for crop j under technology T.
4.2 Determinants of Adoption and Yield Impacts
5 Results and Discussion
5.1 Gross Margin Analysis
Practice surveyed | Details of the practice | % of Households adopting | Avg. nr. of years of adoption
| |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dien Bien | Son La | Yen Bai | Total | |||
Sustainable paddy production intensification | FDP | 0 | 0 | 40 | 16 | 2.12 |
SIP | 9 | 20 | 5 | 11 | 2.34 | |
MT | (with or without any residue management) | 0 | 47 | 39 | 32 | 4.63 |
Agronomy | Intercropping | 15 | 24 | 17 | 19 | 3.35 |
Crop rotation | 3 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 4.25 | |
Soil and water conservation structures | Mini-terracing | 17 | 18 | 8 | 14 | 6.11 |
Agroforestry | Agroforestry | 4 | 9 | 23 | 13 | 3.73 |
Conventional | None of the above | 94 | 91 | 79 | 87 |
Paddy, manual, flood irrigated | Season 1, Yen Bai | Season 1, Yen Bai, Dien Bien and Son La | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FDP –Transplanting, high intensity | Conventional –Transplanting, high intensity | SIP – Transplanting, high intensity | Conventional – Broadcasting, low intensity | Conventional – Transplanting, high intensity | |
(A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | |
Yield (kg/ha) | 5713 | 4899 | 5404 | 3519 | 4929 |
(1) Total revenue ($/ha) | 2177 | 1867 | 2059 | 1341 | 1879 |
(2) Cash inputs ($/ha) | 479 | 416 | 492 | 312 | 396 |
(3) Gross margin ($/ha) | 1698 | 1451 | 1567 | 1029 | 1482 |
Cost of family labour ($/ha) | 1466 | 1369 | 1536 | 1526 | 1654 |
(4) Total costs ($/ha) | 1945 | 1785 | 2028 | 1838 | 2050 |
(5) Net income ($/ha) | 232 | 82 | 31 | −497 | −172 |
(6) Production costs per unit of output ($/kg) | 0.34 | 0.36 | 0.38 | 0.52 | 0.42 |
(7) Returns to cash capital ($/$) | 4.55 | 4.49 | 4.18 | 4.29 | 4.74 |
Total family labour (person days/ha) | 256 | 239 | 269 | 267 | 289 |
(8) Return to family labour ($/person day) | 6.62 | 6.06 | 5.83 | 3.85 | 5.12 |
(9) Labour productivity (kg/person day) | 22.28 | 20.46 | 20.11 | 13.18 | 17.04 |
(10) BCR | 1.12 | 1.05 | 1.02 | 0.73 | 0.92 |
Paddy, manual, flood irrigated | Season 2, Yen Bai | Season 2, Yen Bai, Dien Bien and Son La | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
FDP –Transplanting, high intensity | Conventional –Transplanting, high intensity | SIP – Transplanting, high intensity | Conventional – Broadcasting, low intensity | Conventional – Transplanting, high intensity | |
(A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | (E) | |
Yield (kg/ha) | 4783 | 4326 | 4280 | 3268 | 3542 |
(1) Total revenue ($/ha) | 1823 | 1649 | 1631 | 1246 | 1350 |
(2) Cash inputs ($/ha) | 462 | 428 | 442 | 318 | 363 |
(3) Gross margin ($/ha) | 1361 | 1221 | 1189 | 927 | 986 |
Cost of family labour ($/ha) | 1454 | 1380 | 1569 | 1452 | 1573 |
(4) Total costs ($/ha) | 1916 | 1808 | 2011 | 1770 | 1936 |
(5) Net income ($/ha) | −93 | −159 | −380 | −524 | −586 |
(6) Production costs per unit of output ($/kg) | 0.40 | 0.42 | 0.47 | 0.54 | 0.55 |
(7) Returns to cash capital ($/$) | 3.95 | 3.86 | 3.69 | 3.91 | 3.72 |
Total family labour (person days/ha) | 254 | 241 | 274 | 254 | 275 |
(8) Return to family labour ($/person day) | 5.35 | 5.06 | 4.33 | 3.65 | 3.59 |
(9) Labour productivity (kg/person day) | 18.80 | 17.92 | 15.60 | 12.87 | 12.88 |
(10) BCR | 0.95 | 0.91 | 0.81 | 0.70 | 0.70 |
Upland rice, all three provinces Maize, Son La and Yen Bai provinces | Upland rice, local | Maize, hybrid | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Conventional | MT, residues burned | MT, residues left on field | Conventional, residues burned | |
(A) | (B) | (C) | (D) | |
Yield (kg/ha) | 1246 | 4475 | 4710 | 4768 |
(1) Total revenue ($/ha) | 475 | 1173 | 1234 | 1249 |
(2) Cash inputs ($/ha) | 207 | 342 | 408 | 378 |
(3) Gross margin ($/ha) | 268 | 831 | 826 | 871 |
Cost of family labour ($/ha) | 2136 | 807 | 886 | 1025 |
(4) Total costs ($/ha) | 2343 | 1149 | 1294 | 1403 |
(5) Net income ($/ha) | −1868 | 23 | −60 | −153 |
(6) Production costs per unit of output ($/kg) | 1.88 | 0.26 | 0.27 | 0.29 |
(7) Returns to cash capital ($/$) | 2.29 | 3.43 | 3.02 | 3.31 |
Total family labour (person days/ha) | 374 | 141 | 155 | 179 |
(8) Return to family labour ($/person day) | 0.72 | 5.88 | 5.33 | 4.86 |
(9) Labour productivity (kg/person day) | 3.33 | 31.69 | 30.39 | 26.6 |
(10) BCR | 0.2 | 1.02 | 0.95 | 0.89 |
5.2 Econometric Analyses
Dien Bien | Son La | Yen Bai | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Rainfall
| ||||
maize_first10d_rain | 23.82 | 79.96 | 22.69 | 42.27 |
maize_flower_rain | 64.65 | 65.93 | 27.87 | 50.17 |
maize_midseason_rain | 205.05 | 206.49 | 207.30 | 206.44 |
LT CV of maize_first10d_rain | 0.94 | 0.32 | 0.81 | 0.68 |
LT CV of maize_flower_rain | 0.52 | 0.51 | 0.58 | 0.54 |
LT CV of maize_midseason_rain | 0.30 | 0.35 | 0.31 | 0.32 |
rice_harvest_rain, season 1 | 62.63 | 212.29 | 295.88 | 207.61 |
rice_harvest_rain, season 2 | 86.54 | 116.22 | 347.79 | 202.46 |
LT CV of rice_harvest_rain, season 1 | 0.32 | 0.23 | 0.32 | 0.29 |
LT CV of rice_harvest_rain, season 2 | 0.38 | 0.54 | 0.24 | 0.38 |
Temperature
| ||||
rice_midseason_tmin, season 1 | 14.55 | 16.79 | 19.50 | 17.31 |
rice_heading_tmax, season 1 | 29.63 | 25.93 | 25.56 | 26.74 |
rice_heading_tmax, season 2 | 26.87 | 25.65 | 29.72 | 27.61 |
LT CV of rice_midseason_tmin, season 1 | 14.27 | 5.40 | 9.10 | 9.19 |
LT CV of rice_heading_tmax, season 1 | 12.28 | 5.86 | 6.62 | 7.82 |
LT CV of rice_heading_tmax, season 2 | 2.59 | 3.09 | 3.03 | 2.94 |
Dien Bien | Son La | Yen Bai | Total | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables
| ||||
% of maize plots under MT | 0 | 47 | 51 | 40 |
% of paddy plots under FDP | 0 | 0 | 51 | 21 |
% of paddy plots under SIP | 10 | 31 | 5 | 14 |
Crop/Land characteristics
| ||||
Total land operated throughout year (ha) | 0.45 | 0.8 | 0.48 | 0.58 |
Nr. of seasons | 1.28 | 1.12 | 1.53 | 1.33 |
Plot slope (weighted) | 2.61 | 2.51 | 2.15 | 2.39 |
Dummy household has certificate of land | 0.47 | 0.98 | 0.75 | 0.76 |
Altitude (m asl) | 780.28 | 555.92 | 359.25 | 534.01 |
Nr. of crop units (plots/seasons) | 1.87 | 1.79 | 2.07 | 1.93 |
Socio-economic characteristics
| ||||
Age of household head | 41.23 | 43.25 | 45.01 | 43.45 |
Education of household head | 3.22 | 2.57 | 2.76 | 2.83 |
Dummy female headed household | 0.03 | 0.07 | 0.13 | 0.08 |
Nr. adults working on farm | 2.28 | 3.09 | 2.56 | 2.66 |
Nr. children working on farm | 0.02 | 0.01 | 0.04 | 0.03 |
Dummy Kinh ethnicity | 0.07 | 0.00 | 0.38 | 0.17 |
Dummy Thai ethnicity | 0.82 | 0.72 | 0.22 | 0.54 |
Dummy H’mong ethnicity | 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.20 | 0.13 |
Institutions
| ||||
Dummy household received ext. advice on MT | 0.22 | 0.45 | 0.54 | 0.43 |
Dummy household received ext. advice on FDP/SIP | 0.89 | 0.38 | 0.82 | 0.72 |
Dummy participation to farmer union | 0.83 | 0.67 | 0.75 | 0.74 |
Dummy support for fertilizer received in 2013 | 0.08 | 0.01 | 0.02 | 0.03 |
Dummy support for seeds received in 2013 | 0.33 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.14 |
Dummy access to formal credit | 0.73 | 0.44 | 0.22 | 0.43 |
Wealth/Income
| ||||
Dummy household has income from other sources | 0.28 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.22 |
Household asset index | 0.04 | 0.44 | −0.32 | 0.03 |
Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) owned | 2.08 | 1.55 | 1.40 | 1.63 |
Maize | Paddy rice | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
MT(A) | MT w/LT AVG(B) | FDP(C) | SIP(D) | FDP w/LT AVG(E) | SIP w/LT AVG(F) | |
ln(Total area operated throughout year) | −0.013 | −0.011 | 0.039 | 0.002 | 0.031 | 0.002 |
(0.038) | (0.038) | (0.040) | (0.005) | (0.038) | (0.003) | |
Plot slope (weighted) | 0.187*** | 0.204*** | −0.058* | −0.010* | −0.053* | −0.006* |
(0.054) | (0.054) | (0.030) | (0.005) | (0.029) | (0.003) | |
Dummy household has certificate of land | −0.074 | −0.122 | 0.070 | 0.026 | 0.063 | 0.013 |
(0.097) | (0.101) | (0.067) | (0.019) | (0.069) | (0.011) | |
ln(Age of household head) | 0.070 | 0.067 | −0.271 | 0.066** | −0.298 | 0.033* |
(0.114) | (0.115) | (0.200) | (0.031) | (0.200) | (0.018) | |
Years of Education of household head (median) | 0.014 | 0.013 | 0.153** | −0.003 | 0.159** | −0.003 |
(0.037) | (0.037) | (0.067) | (0.011) | (0.064) | (0.007) | |
Dummy female headed household | −0.098 | −0.108 | 0.102 | −0.010 | 0.080 | −0.003 |
(0.102) | (0.099) | (0.140) | (0.015) | (0.141) | (0.010) | |
Nr. adults working on farm | −0.000 | 0.007 | −0.040 | −0.008 | −0.033 | −0.005 |
(0.027) | (0.027) | (0.049) | (0.008) | (0.049) | (0.005) | |
Nr. children working on farm | 0.117 | 0.078 | 0.210 | 0.123*** | 0.182 | 0.072*** |
(0.116) | (0.115) | (0.206) | (0.027) | (0.196) | (0.016) | |
Dummy Kinh ethnicity | −0.030 | −0.106 | −0.274** | 0.222*** | −0.245** | 0.165*** |
(0.125) | (0.114) | (0.122) | (0.060) | (0.105) | (0.047) | |
Dummy Thai ethnicity | 0.116 | 0.191** | 0.229** | −0.008 | 0.343*** | −0.001 |
(0.093) | (0.091) | (0.111) | (0.015) | (0.133) | (0.008) | |
Dummy H’mong ethnicity | −0.066 | 0.072 | −0.532*** | −0.717*** | ||
(0.178) | (0.181) | (0.161) | (0.236) | |||
Dummy household received ext. advice on MT/SIP | 0.561*** | 0.566*** | 0.454*** | 0.083*** | 0.432*** | 0.049*** |
(0.056) | (0.060) | (0.108) | (0.014) | (0.107) | (0.009) | |
Dummy participation to farmer union | −0.059 | −0.069 | 0.057 | −0.044* | 0.067 | −0.027* |
(0.065) | (0.062) | (0.099) | (0.022) | (0.095) | (0.014) | |
Dummy support for fertilizer received in 2013 | 0.060 | 0.140 | −0.357** | −0.018 | −0.336* | −0.013 |
(0.097) | (0.095) | (0.175) | (0.041) | (0.174) | (0.020) | |
Dummy support for seeds received in 2013 | −0.189*** | −0.216*** | 0.473*** | −0.002 | 0.485*** | −0.002 |
(0.067) | (0.068) | (0.153) | (0.037) | (0.150) | (0.021) | |
Dummy access to formal credit | 0.158** | 0.160** | 0.072 | 0.011 | 0.088 | 0.005 |
(0.070) | (0.067) | (0.093) | (0.021) | (0.091) | (0.012) | |
Dummy household has income from other sources | 0.035 | 0.027 | −0.051 | 0.006 | −0.056 | 0.005 |
(0.072) | (0.072) | (0.084) | (0.023) | (0.085) | (0.014) | |
Household asset index | −0.043 | −0.050 | 0.092 | 0.000 | 0.101 | −0.001 |
(0.034) | (0.035) | (0.068) | (0.010) | (0.066) | (0.006) | |
Tropical Livestock Units (TLU) owned | 0.022 | 0.023 | −0.002 | 0.001 | 0.003 | 0.000 |
(0.019) | (0.019) | (0.016) | (0.003) | (0.018) | (0.002) | |
Share of households adopting MT in the community | 1.120*** | 1.133*** | ||||
(0.231) | (0.242) | |||||
LT CV of maize_first10d_rain | 0.022 | −0.118** | ||||
(0.020) | (0.054) | |||||
LT CV of maize_flower_rain | −0.010 | 0.704* | ||||
(0.042) | (0.400) | |||||
LT CV of maize_midseason_rain | 0.014 | −0.173 | ||||
(0.060) | (0.381) | |||||
LT AVG of maize_first10d_rain | −0.445 | |||||
(0.581) | ||||||
LT AVG of maize_flower_rain | 0.196 | |||||
(0.306) | ||||||
LT AVG of maize_midseason_rain | 0.334 | |||||
(0.363) | ||||||
LT CV of rice_heading_tmax, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.003 | 0.003 | −0.054 | 0.004 | ||
(0.142) | (0.003) | (0.121) | (0.003) | |||
LT CV of rice_harvest_rain, season 1 and/or season 2 | −0.008 | −0.000 | −0.117 | −0.000 | ||
(0.061) | (0.001) | (0.107) | (0.001) | |||
LT CV of rice_midseason_tmin, season 1 and/or season 2 | −0.040* | −0.019 | ||||
(0.023) | (0.013) | |||||
LT AVG of rice_heading_tmax, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.253** | 0.010** | ||||
(0.113) | (0.005) | |||||
LT AVG of rice_harvest_rain, season 1 and/or season 2 | −4.677* | −0.032 | ||||
(2.798) | (0.038) | |||||
LT AVG of rice_midseason_tmin, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.032 | |||||
(0.023) | ||||||
Number of observations | 504 | 504 | 697 | 1458 | 697 | 1458 |
Pseudo R2
| 0.43 | 0.44 | 0.41 | 0.42 | 0.43 | 0.43 |
Log-Likelihood | −198.47 | −195.47 | −283.19 | −331.45 | −274.19 | −324.88 |
Maize | Paddy rice | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
MT(A) | MT w/interactions(B) | FDP/SIP(C) | FDP/SIP w/interactions(D) | |
Dummy MT in at least one plot/season | −0.070 | 0.398 | ||
(0.060) | (0.328) | |||
Years of MT use for those who used in 2013 | 0.047*** | 0.043** | ||
(0.015) | (0.017) | |||
Years of MT use for those who used in 2013 | −0.005*** | −0.005*** | ||
(0.001) | (0.001) | |||
Dummy FDP | 0.049 | 2.106*** | ||
(0.032) | (0.796) | |||
Dummy SIP | 0.087* | −0.080 | ||
(0.047) | (0.428) | |||
Years of FDP use for those who used in 2013 | 0.005 | −0.008 | ||
(0.012) | (0.012) | |||
Years of SIP use for those who used in 2013 | −0.002 | 0.004 | ||
(0.012) | (0.010) | |||
maize_first10d_rain | 0.398* | 0.348* | ||
(0.206) | (0.202) | |||
maize_flower_rain | −0.295* | −0.202 | ||
(0.155) | (0.161) | |||
Dummy MT*maize_first10d_rain | 0.148* | |||
(0.085) | ||||
Dummy MT*maize_flower_rain | −0.270** | |||
(0.130) | ||||
rice_midseason_tmin, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.003 | |||
(0.002) | ||||
rice_heading_tmax, season 1 and/or season 2 | −0.011* | −0.010 | ||
(0.006) | (0.008) | |||
rice_harvest_rain, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.099 | 0.142* | ||
(0.079) | (0.079) | |||
SIP*rice_heading_tmax, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.032** | |||
(0.013) | ||||
FDP*rice_heading_tmax, season 1 and/or season 2 | 0.002 | |||
(0.009) | ||||
SIP*ln(rice_harvest_rain, season 1 and/or season 2) | −0.142*** | |||
(0.044) | ||||
FDP*ln(rice_harvest_rain, season 1 and/or season 2) | −0.366** | |||
(0.145) | ||||
Inputs use per ha (seeds, fertilizer, labour) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Controls for crop/land characteristics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Controls for socio-economic characteristics | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Controls for institutions | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Controls for wealth/income | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
Constant | 6.547*** | 6.415*** | 7.086*** | 6.902*** |
(0.872) | (0.888) | (0.534) | (0.536) | |
Number of observations | 465 | 465 | 1604 | 1604 |
Adjusted R2 | 0.28 | 0.29 | 0.38 | 0.39 |
Log-Likelihood | −137.33 | −135.42 | 69 | 84.25 |