ABCM Series on Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
12th Brazilian Manufacturing Engineering Congress - COBEF
- 2024
- Book
- Editors
- Déborah de Oliveira
- Maksym Ziberov
- Alisson Rocha Machado
- Book Series
- Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
About this book
This book presents research and findings in the field of manufacturing engineering, technologies and innovative approaches to process improvements. It features selected papers presented at 12th Brazilian Manufacturing Engineering Congress held on 10-12 of May of 2023 in Brasília, DF, Brazil. The book provides valuable insights and information to academic researchers, practicing engineers, or students just starting out in the field of manufacturing engineering. The Chapters are divided by areas of interest, including Additive Manufacturing, Processes with Material Removal, Union and Assembly Processes, Tribology and other manufacturing technologies..
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Table of Contents
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Frontmatter
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In-Situ Measurement and Dimensional Error Modeling: A Case Study in a Machine Tool Manufacturer
Amanda Rossi de Oliveira, Thiago Cannabrava de Sousa, Thiago Rodrigues Campos da Silva, Erik Gustavo Del ConteThe chapter delves into the integration of Industry 4.0 technologies in a machine tool manufacturer, focusing on the use of in-situ measurement probes and dimensional error modeling to enhance production accuracy. By comparing measurements from an in-situ probe and a coordinate measuring machine (CMM), the study identifies systematic errors and proposes correction methods to improve the accuracy of machined components. Additionally, the chapter explores the impact of tool wear on dimensional variations and develops models for on-machine tool wear compensation. The case study highlights the potential of data-driven strategies in achieving more accurate and efficient manufacturing processes, paving the way for the implementation of Industry 4.0 principles.AI Generated
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AbstractQuality assurance in manufacturing processes is an issue that will require new strategies to follow the evolution guided by Industry 4.0. Thus, considering the data relevance for this new revolution, it is crucial to understand how inspection and measurement techniques can make the most of the process’s information to make quality more manageable and avoid rework. Based on data-driven strategies, the present study aimed to improve the dimensional accuracy of clamp levers and grippers manufactured by milling. A case study was stated on the multinational machine tool manufacturer responsible to produce 42 CrMo4 steel clamp levers and grippers. Starting with a root causes mapping, it was possible to identify critical internal operations for dimensional accuracy variations in the products that require some enhancements. Hence, machined clamp levers and grippers’ critical dimensions measured with a coordinate measuring machine (CMM) used in the quality department were compared to those measured with an in-situ measurement probe to improve the online equipment accuracy. Regarding the systematic error evaluation for two critical dimensions in the products, this approach found about 0.019 mm and 0.009 mm absolute corrections to enhance the measurement probe method. Also, cutting tool wear experiments contributed to modeling a compensation approach for this phenomenon during machining, according to the number of manufactured components within the tool life. Finally, the proposed human-based data-driven methodologies contribute to defining the first step of measurement and inspection evolutions through the 4.0 Industry structure in an entire manufacturing system. -
Investigation of the Effects of Temperature and Contact Pressure on the Friction Coefficient in Uncoated PHS2000 Steel Plates
Bruno Caetano dos Santos Silva, Luã Fonseca Seixas, Luis Fernando Folle, Alexandre Ferraz Dourado, Tiago Nunes Lima, Rodrigo Santiago Coelho, Gilmar Ferreira BatalhaThe chapter delves into the tribological behavior of uncoated PHS2000 steel plates under varying temperature and contact pressure conditions, simulating industrial hot stamping processes. It employs the pin-on-disk friction test to measure the coefficient of friction, revealing that temperature significantly influences friction behavior. Notably, the study finds that at lower pressures, the friction coefficient decreases with increasing temperature due to oxide layer formation, while at higher pressures, this reduction is not observed. The results highlight the importance of understanding these tribological interactions to enhance tool life and reduce maintenance costs in the automotive manufacturing sector.AI Generated
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AbstractManganese-boron steels are widely used in hot stamping, resulting in 1500 MPa (PHS 1500) or even 2000 MPa (PHS 2000) tensile strength after the hot stamping process. These steels are most commonly used in industry in the form of AlSi-coated sheets. However, recent developments are being made to enable the application of uncoated steels, resulting in cost reduction, but bringing technological challenges to be overcome. The coefficient of friction (µ) is a fundamental parameter in sheet metal forming and is influenced by several factors, such as: surface roughness, working temperature, lubrication, contact pressure and sliding speed. In hot stamping, it is known that the temperature can have a great influence on µ values for coated plates, but there is little information about uncoated steels. This work aims to investigate the tribological behavior of uncoated PHS 2000 steel plates using the pin-on-disk test. Tests were carried out under three temperatures (800 °C, 600 °C and 400 °C) and contact pressures of 5 and 10 MPa. Results showed that the friction coefficient tends to reduce with increasing temperature at a pressure of 5 MPa, as result of oxide formation on the steel’s surface. However, at a pressure of 10 MPa, this reduction was not observed. -
Cleaner Production Principles Applied to the Port Logistics Sector
Évelyn dos Santos Jardim Esteves, Ângelo Márcio Oliveira Sant’Anna, Felipe Andrade Torres, Ednildo Andrade TorresThe chapter delves into the application of Cleaner Production principles to the port logistics sector, with a specific focus on the Brazilian context. It begins by discussing the growing concern for environmental sustainability and the increasing use of renewable energy sources, particularly solar energy. The work evaluates the electric energy consumption of a company in the port terminal of Aratu, Bahia, using statistical process control methods. The analysis reveals periods of deviation in energy consumption, which are linked to variations in cargo handling intensity. The chapter then proposes the implementation of Cleaner Production strategies, such as solar tube lighting and photovoltaic systems, to optimize energy use and reduce costs. The geographical location of the enterprise and the favorable solar irradiation index support the feasibility of these clean energy solutions. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of the proposed project, aligning with current public policies and energy matrix trends in Brazil.AI Generated
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AbstractMuch of the electrical energy currently consumed in the industrial sector worldwide comes from non-renewable sources. These, when used, contribute to the formation of greenhouse gases (GHG), atmospheric pollution and global warming. The use of solar energy as an alternative source of power generation has been increasingly employed in companies, reducing operational costs. The geographical location, relief, and climate of the state of Bahia are favorable for solar energy generation. In the first months of 2022, Bahia was responsible for approximately 1/3 of the country’s solar energy generation. Company “K”, located in the Port of Aratu/BA, operates in the segment of mining, processing and beneficiation of materials derived from magnesium oxide, and performs logistical operations of the raw material for export. In this context, this work is based on the concepts of Cleaner Production (CP), through descriptive and exploratory research, applied to the logistics of the product at the Port of Aratu. Data collection was performed, analysis of indicators that supported the goals intended for the proposed implementation of CP, aiming at environmental management, an opportunity to reduce the consumption of electricity, related to the change of technology, as the objective of this work. Applying the CP concepts in logistics at the Port of Aratu, it is expected that there will be an improvement in processes, providing not only a reduction in electricity consumption but also providing operational and economic gains, in addition to improving the company’s image before the market in relation to environmental management and quality. -
A Model Based on Non-linear Regressions to Predict Aluminum Injection Moulds Lifespan
Evandro Menezes de Souza Amarante, Victor Gabriel Sousa Fagundes dos Santos, Pedro Guilherme Carvalho de Souza Marconi, Cristiano Vasconcellos Ferreira, Valter Estevão Beal, Armando Sá Ribeiro JuniorThe chapter discusses the challenges and benefits of using aluminum alloys in injection moulds for thermoplastic parts, focusing on their superior thermal properties and the need for predictive maintenance. It introduces a mathematical model based on exponential regressions to estimate the number of cycles before maintenance and the mould's lifespan. The model was validated using data from steel moulds and applied to aluminum alloy 7034-T6, demonstrating its potential for improving productivity and quality in the injection moulding process.AI Generated
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AbstractTraditionally, thermoplastic injection moulds are made of steel due to its good thermal stability, high mechanical resistance and the possibility of easily obtaining the desired surface finish. Despite these advantages, steel has low thermal conductivity when compared to other materials, such as aluminium, thus requiring longer periods for the part to cool before demoulding it and, consequently, generating longer operating cycles. On the other hand, the use of aluminium in the manufacture of tools used in the injection process is still limited due to its low mechanical strength (when compared to steel), leading to distrust as to the number of parts that can be injected and, therefore, as to their lifespan. The lack of data regarding the frequency of maintenance that must be performed on the aluminium mould to ensure the quality of the injected parts corroborates this scenario of uncertainty, since this information is essential to guarantee the viability of these moulds for high production of plastic parts. This work proposes a mathematical model based on exponential regressions in order to estimate the maximum number of cycles that can be performed before the need for preventive maintenance, and to evaluate the lifespan of aluminium moulds. In order to achieve this, the model was based on the number of cycles related to preventive maintenance, as well as the mechanical strength and hardness of various mould materials. -
Influence of Different Gear Flank Deviation Tolerance Classes on the Contact Pattern
Caio Felipe Siqueira Gomes, Tiago Cristofer Aguzzoli Colombo, Ronnie Rodrigo RegoThe chapter delves into the influence of different gear flank deviation tolerance classes on contact patterns in electric mobility applications. It discusses the transformation of the mobility sector due to the adoption of green technologies and the resulting increase in electric and hybrid vehicles. The study focuses on the impact of high-speed electric motor gears on gear design and manufacturing, particularly the need for tighter tolerances. The authors analyze the effects of profile and helix slope deviations on contact pressure and stress distribution, revealing that helix slope deviations have a more significant impact. The findings suggest a targeted tolerance design approach to optimize manufacturing costs and gear performance in electric mobility applications. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of a design-for-manufacturing approach to address the challenges of mobility electrification.AI Generated
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AbstractMobility electrification advent has affected the vehicle systems’ design requirements, especially for the powertrain components. Αmong the critical fields affecting the functional performance of future powertrain components is their geometrical accuracy. For gears, the necessity of tighter manufacturing tolerances is related to the much higher rotational speeds involved in the electric motor operation than the internal combustion engine. Although the gear flank tolerance classification establishes the limits of tolerable deviations, there is no treatment regarding how different deviation factors can differently influence the dynamic behavior of gears. Therefore, when standards suggest that high-speed gears require improved tolerance classes, all deviation factors are considered a group. In the case of mobility industries like the automotive, tightening tolerance classes represent a challenge. So, the objective of the present study was the assessment of the influence of different gear deviation factors in tooth contact patterns to identify possible different effects among them. So, tooth contact analyses were performed by computational simulations for a gear sample. The influence of manufacturing profile and helix slope deviations of different tolerance classes in the contact pattern was investigated. The results have demonstrated that a class modification in helix slope deviation has a higher impact on the maximum contact pressure than a class modification in profile slope deviation. When assembly deviations are also considered, the distinct influences are intensified. Identifying the most influential deviation parameters allows the gear manufacturing sector not to have to tighter all tolerances to guarantee an adequate e-mobility gear operation. -
Thermomechanical Evaluation of Thermoplastics Injection Cycle Effects in Aluminium Moulds Using the Finite Element Method
Gimaézio Gomes Carvalho, Gabriel Vasconcellos Bayma, Márcio André Fernandes Martins, Cristiano Vasconcellos Ferreira, Valter Estevão Beal, Armando Sá Ribeiro JuniorThe chapter delves into the thermomechanical evaluation of thermoplastic injection cycles in aluminium moulds, comparing them with traditional steel moulds. It utilizes the Finite Element Method to simulate successive injection cycles, assessing temperature profiles, stress states, and parting line openings. The study reveals that while aluminium moulds offer superior thermal conductivity and faster cooling cycles, they may experience greater stresses and parting line openings compared to steel moulds. The research provides valuable insights into the potential benefits and challenges of using aluminium moulds in high-volume production, emphasizing the need for optimized processing parameters and mould design to harness aluminium's thermal advantages without compromising part quality.AI Generated
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AbstractThe mould stiffness becomes more relevant during the packing stage, therefore predicting the mould mechanical behaviour when submitted to the loading cycles of the injection process is essential to the tooling project. Some loading sources are more likely to damage the tooling, such as the holding pressure, the clamping force, and the thermal stress. Considering the mould thermal cycle is important, evaluating heat exchange by conduction between the part and the mould, the free convection with the surrounding air and the forced convection with the cooling fluid. The aluminium’s thermal and mechanical properties are significantly different than steel ones, which change the injection cycle and its capability to resist the injection load cycles. This justifies the need to evaluate the differences in the use of both steel and aluminium materials in the mould design. This paper proposes numerical simulations making use of finite element method to assess the effects of the injection moulding loads on aluminium moulds, through outputs such as temperature profile, the stress state, and parting line openings. The results are compared to numerical results obtained for steel moulds. The results show that the difference between the mould’s materials properties significantly changes the injection moulding conditions and the mould design, particularly the cooling system efficiency. These aspects are fundamental to make guidance to required modifications on the aluminium moulds, allowing the mould mechanical project and cooling system optimization to perform the best in terms of the part quality and process productivity. -
Numerical and Experimental Analysis of the Behavior of Tailor Welded Blanks to the Uniaxial Tensile Test
Guilherme Souza Assunção, Etiene Andrade Pereira, Wellington Augusto dos Santos, Alexandre Queiroz BracarenseThis chapter delves into the intricate behavior of Tailor Welded Blanks (TWBs) during uniaxial tensile tests, highlighting the challenges posed by the differential deformation of welded materials. Through a combination of experimental and numerical analysis, the authors investigate the critical factors influencing the performance of TWBs, such as the weld line orientation and material properties. The study employs finite element methods to simulate the tensile tests, aiming to enhance the correlation between experimental and simulated results. Notably, the work introduces the Rule of Mixtures to accurately represent the mechanical properties of the weld, and discusses the implications of material anisotropy on test outcomes. The findings offer valuable insights into optimizing the design and simulation of TWBs, ultimately contributing to more reliable and efficient manufacturing processes.AI Generated
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AbstractIn laser welding of Tailor Welded Blank (TWB), the melt zone (MZ) and heat-affected zone (HAZ) are very narrow, which makes it difficult to measure the mechanical properties of this region. This work sought to correlate the results of experimental uniaxial tensile tests with TWBs in which the weld line had different orientations, to numerical simulations. We worked with the Abaqus® software, considering the properties of the weld line, obtained with the Rule of Mixtures. TWB composed of interstitial-free steels of different mechanical properties was used, which led to the union of three different zones (two base materials and the welded region). The mechanical properties of the elastic and plastic regime of the tensile test were taken into account. It was found that weld makes a difference in the results, but for this to be really perceived, it is necessary to refine the mesh in the region, demanding more processing time. Whether or not the weld is considered, as long as it is qualified, rupture tends to occur in the material with the lowest mechanical resistance. The weld has greater mechanical strength and relative ductility, acting as a stress concentrator and changing the fracture direction of the TWB under tensile stress. The Rule of mixtures proved to be effective for representing the weld and the numerical model represented by the finite element method, with the imposed boundary conditions and simplification of the material as isotropic, proved to be valid with consistent results in relation to rupture load and elongation. -
Microstructure and Hardness of S41003 Steel When Submitted to Different Heat Treatments
Renata Rodrigues Alves, José Lucio Gonçalves Junior, Daniel Fernandes Cunha, Kléber Mendes de Figueiredo, Geraldo Lucio De Faria, Wilian da Silva LabiapariThis chapter delves into the microstructure and hardness of S41003 steel when subjected to different heat treatments. It begins by introducing the basic properties of ferritic stainless steels and the influence of various alloying elements on their microstructure. The study focuses on the effects of intercritical annealing and austenitization time on the formation of martensite and chromium carbides. The results reveal that intercritical annealing increases chromium carbide precipitation and enhances hardness. Additionally, the chapter examines the relationship between austenitization time, grain size, and hardness, providing a comprehensive understanding of the heat treatment processes that can be applied to S41003 steel. The detailed analysis and comparisons make this chapter a valuable resource for professionals seeking to optimize the properties of this material through heat treatment.AI Generated
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AbstractAlthough the ferritic stainless steel 410D (S41003) has a relatively simple chemical composition, with only 0.015% carbon by weight, previous studies indicate that this alloy can be fully or partially hardened by heat treatment. Therefore, the present work aims to analyze the effect of different heat treatment conditions on the microstructure and hardening of the material. As a methodology, two heat treatment conditions were performed. In the first condition, the samples were heated to 1000 ℃, varying the austenitizing time at 5 min, 30 min, 60 min, 120 min, and 240 min and then quenched in water. For the second condition, the samples underwent an intercritical annealing at 800 ℃ for 1 h and were cooled in the furnace. Afterwards, the samples were heated to 1000 ℃, varying the austenitizing time at 5 min, 30 min, 60 min, 120 min, and 240 min and quenched in water. The microstructural analysis indicated that the as-received material has a polygonal ferritic structure with Cr23C6 carbide precipitation, and the annealing treatment generated the precipitation of more chromium carbides. After the quenching treatment, the qualitative analysis corroborated previous studies indicating an increase in lath martensite due to the increase in grain size. The hardening results indicate that the alloy can be hardened by quenching, but when the material undergoes a prior intercritical annealing process, the hardness increases. Moreover, the longer the samples are held at the austenitizing temperature, the lower the post-quenching hardness, a phenomenon associated with the increase in austenitic grain size. -
Influence of Cutting Speed on Chip Formation and Hardening in the Deep-Hole Drilling Process of VTM-PLUS Tool Steel
Virgilio P. Ricci, Paulo H. S. Rodrigues, Gilberto L. A. Xavier, Amauri Hassui, Carlos E. H. VenturaThe chapter discusses the influence of cutting speed on chip formation and hardening in deep-hole drilling of VTM-PLUS tool steel. It begins by highlighting the challenges and complexities of deep-hole drilling, such as tool rigidity and vibration issues. The methodology section details the experimental setup, including the use of a Hermle C400 machining center and VTM-PLUS tool steel. The results and discussions focus on the microstructural characterization of the steel and chips, showing the presence of spheroidized carbides and their impact on hardness. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the importance of cutting speed in achieving high-quality holes and the specific microstructural changes observed in VTM-PLUS steel.AI Generated
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AbstractThis study aimed to evaluate the effect of vc on the hardening of chips formed during the deep drilling process in VTM-PLUS tool steel, in the annealed state. The deep drilling was carried out with gun drills having straight channels, internal coolant, high speed steel shank, carbide tip and 7.8 mm diameter, with the ratio L/D = 26. The vc of 60 and 70 m/min were analyzed. To evaluate the influence of cutting speed on the hardening of the chips they were analyzed via microscopy and Vickers hardness test. From the results obtained, it was observed that the formed chips were are segmented for both speeds and that the increase in the cutting speed caused an increase in its hardness. Hardness values increased in the condition of vc = 70 m/min (321 ± 18 HV) when compared to the annealed condition (223 ± 3 HV). For the condition vc = 60m/min there was also an increase in hardness values (309 ± 12 HV), although smaller, when compared to those of higher cutting speed. With the results obtained, it was possible to conclude that the increase in the deformation rate, imposed by the higher cutting speed, led to an increase in the hardness values due to the increase in work hardening. -
Design, Implementation and Evaluation of a Wire Feeding System with Induction Heating Applied to L-DED
Manoel Kolling Dutra, Milton Pereira, Fillipe Augusto Felipim Lavaqui, Tiago Colvara FariaThe chapter delves into the development of a wire feeding system designed to preheat wire through induction for laser-directed energy deposition (L-DED). The system is engineered to address challenges in wire laser cladding, such as precise wire feeding and simultaneous melting of wire and base metal. The mechanical design ensures rigidity and alignment, while the electro-electronic design integrates an inductive heating system operating at high frequencies. The chapter outlines the methodology, design process, and testing of the system, demonstrating its capability to achieve stable and efficient wire deposition. The results show that the system can maintain a consistent wire feed, reach suitable temperatures for hot-wire processes, and produce deposits with satisfactory visual and geometric aspects. The chapter concludes by highlighting the system's potential for further optimization and its applicability in various industrial settings.AI Generated
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AbstractLaser Energy Directed Deposition (L-DED) process is a well-established industrial technique for precise coating deposition and additive manufacturing. Laser cladding aims to improve surface performance, thereby extending the lifespan of many components in severe corrosive and abrasive wear environments. Wire laser cladding consists of feeding the deposited material with a wire, which is fused by a laser energy source and manipulated over the deposition volume. This process offers several advantages over powder-based systems, such as a cleaner processing environment, reduced environmental cost for wire production, no waste of additional material, and a higher material deposition rate. Through innovative equipment, such as dedicated wire feeding systems and preheating techniques, customized manufacturing strategies can improve coating quality and productivity. Among recent innovations, preheating the wire results in lower energy rates delivered by the laser. This type of heating is called hot-wire heating. Hot-wire is well-known in arc welding, where its synchronization with the arc’s electrical parameters provides a dramatic increase in metal transfer stability and controllability. Based on this, the present paper addresses the development of a wire feeder with integrated induction heating. A geometric characterization of the deposited strands and a characterization of the wire heating temperature profile with thermographic imaging measurement were performed to validate the developed device and its peripherals regarding deposition stability. -
Geometry Study on 410NiMo Alloy Parts Printed by WAAM-CMT
Matheus André de Araújo Soares, André Luiz Brito Novelino, Maksym ZiberovThis chapter delves into the geometry study of 410NiMo alloy parts printed by the Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing-Cold Metal Transfer (WAAM-CMT) process. It begins by introducing the advanced manufacturing technologies and the significance of WAAM-CMT in reducing material waste and enhancing precision. The study focuses on the deposition quality of walls, evaluating parameters such as total and effective height and width, and temperature control. Preliminary depositions reveal the impact of torch displacement speed and wire feed speed on geometry, with humping effects observed at high speeds. The chapter then explores the deposition of 5, 10, and 30-layer walls, analyzing the influence of step-over distance, displacement speed, and temperature control methods on geometry stability. It compares the results with conventional GMAW deposition, highlighting the superior geometry and lower heat input of the WAAM-CMT process. The study concludes with insights on the optimal deposition parameters and methods for achieving stable and efficient wall geometries.AI Generated
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AbstractWithin metallic additive manufacturing, the Wire + Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) method is one of the processes that is of great interest to the industry, based on layer-by-layer deposition. This study aims to present the best deposition parameters of the 410NiMo stainless steel alloy, using the WAAM method, and more specifically the Cold Metal Transfer, taking as a comparison the analysis of the best geometry obtained. The desired geometry in an additive manufacturing process is the one with the largest effective area, that is, with the greatest use of material. For this, depositions of single beads and with 5, 15 and 30 layers were carried out, one continuously and the other deposited in two stages with an intermediate cooling time (15 + 15 layers), varying the parameters between them, followed by analysis of their height and width, in addition to measuring the wettability angle obtained, in order to obtain the part with better geometries. In the case of wall depositions, using the parameters obtained from the analysis of single beads, it was verified that the geometry of the samples varied according to the deposited layers, possibly caused by the low temperature of the substrate, causing the molten material to solidify faster. For samples with 30 layers, the depositions without interruption of the arc, with the deposition in stages were compared, the latter being the strategy that presented a greater height, with a narrower width, generating a better use of material and geometry. -
Impact of Deposition Procedures on 410L Multilayer Plasma Transferred Arc Processing
Otavio de Oliveira Lima, Gustavo Scheid Prass, Ana Sofia C. M. d’OliveiraThe chapter delves into the impact of deposition procedures on the properties of multilayer AISI 410L stainless steel produced via Plasma Transferred Arc processing. It examines how deposition direction (bidirectional and unidirectional) and powder flow rate (6 g/min and 9 g/min) influence the microstructure and hardness of the material. The study reveals that deposition direction affects thermal cycles and cooling rates, leading to variations in hardness profiles and microstructure growth. Unidirectional deposition results in a more uniform hardness profile and smaller grains, while bidirectional deposition induces a zigzag effect in microstructure growth. Increasing the powder flow rate leads to thicker layers and coarser microstructures. The findings highlight the critical role of deposition strategies and powder flow rates in optimizing the properties of multilayers, potentially reducing the need for post-heat treatment operations.AI Generated
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AbstractAdditive manufacturing (AM), Directed Energy Deposition (DED) technology is an important industrial manufacturing tool to produce mechanical parts without using expensive molds with functionalities otherwise not possible. AM can be carried out to fabricate new components or on maintenance to rebuild the geometry of worn parts. Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) is a low-cost, high-quality deposition technique that brings significant advantages in AM, and is used to process multilayers of AISI 410L. This study is part of an on-going study that addresses the impact of the deposition direction, bidirectional and unidirectional, and the mass flow (Qm) on the microstructure’s solidification of multilayers. Walls were built using four processing conditions and characterized in regions exposed to a larger and a small number of thermal cycles. Results pointed out that regions exposed to many thermal cycles, exhibited larger ferritic grains with an acicular structure at the grains boundaries and a uniform hardness profile. In contrast, the top region of multilayers exposed to a smaller number of thermal cycles revealed changes to the microstructure and hardness profile. The later exhibiting lower values at the last deposited layers up to 5 thermal cycles where larger grains formed followed by an increase after 8 thermal cycles and the onset of the acicular structure. The low mass flow used allow for good finishing of the multilayers nevertheless the increase in mass flow resulted on an increase in hardness at the different regions and more significant changes at the top layers. -
Effects of PTA Deposition Parameters on Geometry and Hardness of AISI 316L Single-Tracks
Gustavo Scheid Prass, Pedro W. Mattioli, Ana Sofia C. M. d’OliveiraThe chapter focuses on the effects of PTA deposition parameters on the geometry and hardness of AISI 316L single-tracks. It begins by introducing the importance of additive manufacturing (AM) in repairing complex and high-value parts. The study employs a design of experiments (DoE) to assess the impact of deposition current and speed on the coating hardness and geometry of single-tracks deposited on AISI 304L plates. The results reveal that both deposition current and speed significantly influence the track height, width, wettability, reinforcement, penetration, dilution, and hardness. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) shows that deposition current has a substantial impact on most geometrical features and hardness, while deposition speed primarily affects track height and width. Notably, the increase in hardness is associated with increased dilution with the substrate material, suggesting that alloying elements from the substrate enhance the hardness of the coatings. The chapter concludes by highlighting the practical implications of these findings for optimizing repair operations in additive manufacturing.AI Generated
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AbstractDirected Energy Deposition (DED) is an Additive Manufacturing (AM) technology involving the layer-by-layer building of components close to their final geometry. One of the main applications of DED is the repair of metallic components, however, geometrical control is challenging due to the nature of feedstock, heat source, and the process itself. Within this context, Plasma Transferred Arc (PTA) is a well-known process for applying coating on metallic materials, guaranteeing a good metallurgical bond between the substrate and the deposited material. This study addresses the effects of deposition current and deposition velocity on the geometry of single-track AISI 316L. The relationship between processing parameters, processability, and hardness is identified and discussed as a valuable database to select AM maintenance procedures. A Design of Experiment (DoE) varying two factors was adopted, deposition current (4 levels) and deposition velocity (3 levels), totaling 12 sets of parameters. Statistical analysis reveals that both factors affect substrate dilution, while a higher current increased dilution the velocity had the opposite effect. The results also showed that both deposition parameters greatly affected the wettability, hence the geometry of the single tracks. The DoE allowed for a good predictive estimate of the interaction with a part being repaired and the refurbishing of its geometry by AM. This research points out that the geometry, microstructure, and hardness of the first deposited track play an important role in the quality and properties of subsequent multilayer builds, required to recover the part geometry or even add functionalities. -
Effect of Laser Power and Powder Morphology on Surface Roughness of TI6Al4V Produced by Laser Powder-Directed Energy Deposition
Geovana Eloizi Ribeiro, Vincent Wong, Willian Roberto Valiceli Sanitá, Alessandro Roger Rodrigues, Reginaldo Teixeira CoelhoThe chapter delves into the impact of laser power and powder morphology on the surface roughness of Ti6Al4V produced by LP-DED, a critical factor in biomedical implants. It discusses the importance of surface roughness in osseointegration and implant stability, comparing the results with literature findings. The study uses two types of Ti6Al4V powders and varies laser power to evaluate roughness parameters such as Sa, Sq, Ssk, and Sku. The research highlights the significant role of laser power in reducing roughness and the influence of powder morphology on surface texture. The findings offer insights into optimizing process parameters for better surface finish and biocompatibility in additive manufacturing for biomedical applications.AI Generated
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AbstractAdditive manufacturing of metals has emerged as a technology capable of producing complex metal parts in the “near net shape” format, performing repairs, and creating components with gradient material, enabling manufacturing parts with high added value and low production. Directed Energy Deposition from Laser and Powder (LP-DED) is one of the categories of the additive manufacturing process by which concentrated thermal energy allows the metallic powder to melt. These applications have been attractive to different areas such as aerospace, automotive, and medical. In the medical field, its application has focused on creating implants, prostheses, instruments, and medical devices. Ti6Al4V titanium alloys have stood out due to their high mechanical strength, high corrosion resistance, low density, and good biocompatibility. One of the literature challenges reflects the roughness given to printed parts by the LP-DED process, which can affect the osseointegration of prostheses and implants, linked to their recovery time and success. This article evaluates the roughness of Ti6Al4V parts obtained from the LP-DED process using two types of powder. The first is produced by gas atomization, and the second by advanced plasma atomization. Subsequently, eight specimens were fabricated by LP-DED on pure Ti substrate. The laser power was another input variable ranging from 300 W to 345 W with a 15 W increment. The samples were cleaned with deionized water and acetone using ultrasonic vibration. Then, we evaluated the roughness of the samples using a confocal microscope. The roughness evaluation shows that a particle size distribution with Gaussian behavior, as demonstrated by AP&C, resulted in a coarser roughness. In contrast, the Carpenter Additive powder resulted in a slightly thinner roughness. The Laser Power influenced the surface quality due to the increment of density energy. The results obtained in this article represent a breakthrough in medical implants, offering solutions that enable surface integrity and osseointegration, improving the rehabilitation process and increasing the quality. -
Influence of Printing Parameters on Impact and Tension Resistance of Parts Produced by the Fused Filament Fabrication Process
Thiago de Oliveira Santos, Kauã Ferreira de Almeida, Kenji Fabiano Ávila Okada, Felipe dos Anjos Rodrigues Campos, Leonardo Rosa Ribeiro da Silva, Álisson Rocha MachadoThe chapter delves into the impact of printing parameters on the mechanical properties of parts produced by the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) process. It highlights the significant influence of shell thickness on both impact and tensile strength, demonstrating that a thicker shell can increase resistance more efficiently than higher infill. The research also reveals that prolonged exposure to heat during printing can negatively affect mechanical strength, suggesting the need for further optimization of printing parameters. The study employs a factorial design to evaluate the effects of layer height, shell thickness, and infill, providing valuable insights for enhancing the mechanical performance of 3D-printed parts.AI Generated
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AbstractAdditive manufacturing by the Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) process is a manufacturing process that has great potential for facilitating the production of complex and customized parts quickly, with low production costs and little material waste. However, the mechanical resistance of the parts produced by this manufacturing method vary greatly according to printing parameters, especially when they are not bulk solid. It was observed in this work how the impact and tensile resistance of a part change according to the thickness of the shell, height of the printed layer and the infill since these factors alter the moment of inertia and thermal loads. For instance, it is hard to predict if the mechanical properties will improve when increasing shell thickness and reducing infill, or vice versa. Specimens were then produced following a complete factorial design for these 3 variables at 2 levels, and then an analysis of variance was performed with the data from tensile strength tests according to ASTM D638 and impact resistance according to ASTM D4508. Shell thickness was shown to be the most influential and advantageous. -
Heat Treatment Influence on Micromilling of Additively Manufactured Titanium
Maria Clara Coimbra Gonçalves, Marcello Vertamatti Mergulhão, Gilmar Ferreira Batalha, Rodrigo Lima StoeterauThe chapter delves into the effects of heat treatment on micromilling processes for additively manufactured Ti6Al4V alloy. It examines how heat treatment influences surface roughness parameters such as Sa, Sq, Sku, and Ssk, which are crucial for assessing the functionality of parts. The study employs a full factorial design to analyze the impact of tool size, feed per tooth, and heat treatment on surface roughness. The results reveal that heat treatment significantly affects surface roughness, with tool size and heat treatment interactions playing a critical role. Notably, the heat-treated samples exhibited higher Sa and Sq values with larger tool diameters, likely due to increased material ductility and continuous chip formation. The findings highlight the importance of optimizing these parameters to achieve desired surface textures in micromilling processes.AI Generated
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AbstractRecently, miniaturized products are being used as working tools by many fields, highlighting the medical and dental industries. With the development of Additive Manufacturing (AM) processes, these features can be produced with less material waste and with wide design possibilities by applying a ‘near-net-shape’ technique. Although, the AM parts require post-processing techniques to reach the required material properties, dimensions, and surface roughness and to reduce undesirable residual stresses. In this aspect, the micromilling process is usually applied to attain the desired dimensions and surface roughness and heat treatments to attain the desired material properties and to reduce residual stress. Nonetheless, the micromilling process can be done before or after the heat treatment. In this perspective, this research analyses the surface roughness results for the micromilled AM parts before and after the heat treatment, which is in important for planning the manufacturing route for these parts. Thus, this work aims to compare the surface roughness results of Sa, Sq, Ssk, Sku when performing the micromilling process on AM parts by Laser Powder Bed Fusion (LPBF), with and without heat treatment. For the experiments, the tool size, feed and cutting speed were varied in a full factorial design of experiments. After that, the surface roughness parameters were analyzed and compared for both workpieces. With the achieved results, it can be concluded that the surface texture (Ssk) for the heat-treated and non-heat-treated samples present a predominance of peaks. Also, there is a presence of inordinately high peaks and/or deep valleys on the surface (Sku), which can present an interference of the chips left on the surface not removed by the ultrasonic cleaning. By the analyses of the arithmetic mean deviation (Sa) and the root mean square height (Sq), a better surface quality was achieved when micromilling the samples before the heat treatment for greater tool size, for the specific set of parameters used. With the smaller tool size, a greater surface roughness was achieved if compared to the bigger tool size, though the difference between the samples were not expressive. Moreover, the results achieved in this work can be applied to improve the surface quality of the AM parts used in industry. -
Experimental Study of Micromilling of H13 Tool Steel Manufactured by Directed Energy Deposition
Milla Caroline Gomes, Márcio Bacci da Silva, Wayne N. P. Hung, Reginaldo Teixeira CoelhoThe chapter delves into the experimental study of micromilling H13 tool steel manufactured by Directed Energy Deposition (DED), a process gaining traction for its ability to produce complex geometries. The research explores the impact of material properties and process variables on surface quality and tool wear, comparing the results with traditionally manufactured H13 tool steel. By employing advanced machining techniques and sophisticated measurement tools, the study offers valuable data on the specific energy and cutting forces involved, contributing to a deeper understanding of micromachining processes in the context of additive manufacturing.AI Generated
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AbstractParts manufactured by additive manufacturing (AM) processes have rough surface finish and poor dimensional accuracy, therefore, post-processing must be required. Among the post-processing techniques, micro-milling is popular. Since machinability of materials manufactured by AM differs from those manufactured conventionally, this work investigates the micromilling of AISI H13 tool steel manufactured by the laser-beam directed energy deposition (LDED) and compares it with the micromilling of the same steel obtained by hot rolling and annealing heat treatment. Both quality of the machined surface and the cutting force were analyzed to assess the machinability. The force signals were acquired using a Kistler dynamometer and signal amplifier, and a National Instruments acquisition board and a computer with LabView Signal Express software. Roughness of a micromilled channel was measured using a Taylor Hobson profilometer. Micromilling was performed with the Minitech micromilling system with a maximum speed of 60,000 rpm. Mitsubishi’s (Al,Ti)N coated carbide tool, with a cutting diameter of 400 µm were used. The cutting parameters included a cutting speed of 12.6 m/min, feed per tooth of 10 µm/tooth, axial depth of cut of 40 µm and radial depth of cut equal to 400 µm. Longer milling time caused a reduction of surface roughness Ra and an increase in the cutting force. No statistically significance differences between the Ra values and the cutting force obtained for micromilling the hot rolled versus LDED samples. However, the wear results of the microtools were compatible with the differences in the hardness of the analyzed samples. -
The Influence of Edge Preparation on the Performance of Ceramic Inserts Applied to Hard Turning
Augusto Moura Martins, Alexandre Mares Weikert de Oliveira, Alexandre Mendes Abrão, Carlos Eiji Hirata VenturaThe chapter investigates the effects of edge preparation on the performance of ceramic inserts used in hard turning. It discusses the influence of chamfer geometry on cutting forces, surface roughness, and tool wear. Experimental results show that specific edge preparations can significantly reduce cutting and feed forces, improve surface finish, and extend tool life. The study highlights the importance of optimizing edge geometry to enhance the overall efficiency and durability of hard turning processes.AI Generated
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AbstractThe need for mechanical components with superior strength and specific characteristics for application under severe conditions requires materials with satisfactory mechanical strength and wear resistance under elevated loads. Hardened steels present suitable properties for these applications, thus, manufacturing processes must be capable of dealing with these characteristics to produce high quality components. The aim of this work is to investigate the influence of the cutting conditions (cutting speed and feed) and cutting edge preparation (chamfer angle) of mixed alumina tools (Al2O3 + TiC) when turning hardened AISI 52100 bearing steel (62 HRC), with emphasis on the turning force components, machined surface finish and tool life. The results indicated that feed statistically affected all the evaluated parameters (increasing cutting, feed and passive forces and roughness), whereas cutting edge preparation affected only the feed force and surface roughness (lower feed force and roughness obtained using the tool with a chamfer 80 μm wide and angle of 30º). Regarding tool life, the commercial tool and the tool prepared with chamfer width of 80 μm and angle of 30º presented superior performance and allowed gradual tool wear evolution, in contrast with the other cutting edge preparations which led to edge fracture. -
The Influence of Base Fluid and Graphene Nanoparticles Concentration on Surface Integrity of SAE 52100 Steel After Grinding
Raphael Lima de Paiva, Déborah de Oliveira, Rosemar Batista da SilvaThis chapter delves into the critical role of cutting fluids and graphene nanoparticles in enhancing surface integrity during the grinding of SAE 52100 steel. It compares the performance of two commercially available cutting fluids and evaluates the impact of varying nanoparticle concentrations on surface roughness and microhardness. The study highlights the importance of nanoparticle dispersion in reducing thermal damage and improving overall surface finish, while also noting the challenges posed by nanoparticle agglomeration at higher concentrations. The findings offer valuable insights into optimizing grinding processes for high-carbon steels, contributing to the development of more sustainable and efficient machining techniques.AI Generated
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AbstractGrinding is known as a high specific energy process, in which most of it is transformed into heat and conducted to the workpiece. Thus, the use of cutting fluid is indispensable to attenuate or avoid the occurrence of thermal damage. However, concerning human health and the environment, as well as economic aspects and the search for more sustainable processes, strategies that reduce cutting fluid usage such as the minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) technique have gained prominence. This technique uses a low quantity of cutting fluid, which is directed to the cutting zone with compressed air. Nevertheless, although the MQL technique has shown promising results in comparison to dry grinding and flood technique for different materials, the use of nanofluids has been showing great potential to improve the MQL technique, since the presence of nanoparticles tends to improve lubrication and cooling capacities of the base fluid. In this sense, this work aims to evaluate the influence of the type of base fluid and nanoparticles concentration on the surface integrity of SAE 52100 hardened steel after grinding with graphene-based nanofluids applied with the MQL technique. Two different base fluids were tested: a semi-synthetic vegetable base and a synthetic one. The graphene was added to the base fluids at two different concentrations: 0.025 wt.% and 0.075 wt.%. Grinding trials using the base fluids only (without nanoparticles) were also performed for comparison purposes. The surface integrity of the workpiece after grinding was analyzed in terms of surface finish and microhardness below the machined surface. The results showed that the nanofluid’s efficiency in reducing the surface roughness of the ground surface was strongly influenced by the base fluid and graphene concentration: best results were found after grinding with a combination between semi-synthetic fluid and the lowest graphene concentration (0.025 wt.%). Additionally, the presence of graphene in the cutting fluid attenuated the occurrence of thermal damage in terms of microhardness reduction; for the highest nanoparticles concentration (0.075 wt.%), such reductions were only 1% and 3% after grinding with semi-synthetic and synthetic fluid, respectively. -
Influence of Cutting Speed on Machining Force and Chip Morphology in Turning Self-lubricating Composites Sinterized
Caroline Francisco Dorneles, Sara Builes Díaz, Felipe Gustavo Ebersbach, Rolf Bertrand SchroeterThe chapter delves into the impact of cutting speed on the machining force components and chip morphology during the turning of self-lubricating composites sinterized. It presents a comprehensive analysis of how increasing the cutting speed affects the cutting, feed, and passive forces, showing a reduction in these forces with higher speeds. The study also examines the morphological changes in the chips, noting a decrease in chip length and curvature with increased cutting speeds. These findings are crucial for optimizing the machining process and improving the surface quality of self-lubricating composites, making the chapter a valuable resource for professionals in the field.AI Generated
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AbstractCurrently, a constant concern in the industrial sectors is looking for an improvement in energy efficiency for machinery and equipment. In this context, due to the satisfactory mechanical properties and low coefficient of friction, sintered self-lubricating composites are a viable alternative to materials already used in engineering to contribute to a decrease in energy consumption and increase in sustainability. Hence, this work presents an analysis of the effect of varying cutting speed on the components of machining force and chip morphology in external longitudinal turning of a sintered self-lubricating composite. The specimens were manufactured by powder metallurgy process and have a metallic matrix, composed of iron powder with the addition of alloying elements (Ni and Si). hBN and graphite particles are used as solid lubricants. Six cutting speeds (vc) were adopted, from 350 m/min to 850 m/min, with an increment of 100 m/min. The depth of cut and feed were set at 1.0 mm and 0.2 mm, respectively. The turning tests were carried out using carbide inserts, class P20, triangular shape with three cutting edges on a single face. During the machining tests, machining force were measured, and chip samples were collected. As a result, it was possible to observe a decrease in the components of the machining force with the increase of the cutting speed. Furthermore, when analyzing the chip morphology, the formation of segmented/arc chips was observed. As the cutting speed increases, the chips tend to present a reduction in their arc length, which modify the shape. -
Numerical Optimization of Cutting Parameters for Texturization of Dental Implants
Tarcísio Ladeia de Oliveira, Renato Goulart Jasinevicius, Jonas de Carvalho, Alessandro Roger RodriguesThe chapter delves into the critical role of osseointegration in dental implant stability and the importance of optimizing cutting parameters for implant surface texturization. It explores the impact of surface roughness on wettability, protein adhesion, and bone-implant contact area, while addressing the challenge of bacterial adherence. The text discusses the current range of surface roughness in dental implants and the methods used to achieve it, providing a comprehensive overview of the factors influencing implant stability and longevity.AI Generated
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AbstractThe surface texture of implants was shown to be an important factor in decreasing the intensity of the body's immunological response towards them and guaranteeing their longevity. Currently, regarding dental implants, an average surface roughness (\({S}_{a}\)) between 1 and 2 μm is the norm, as that allows for better osseointegration. Many kinds of surface treatments may be used to obtain roughness in that range, each one having its own characteristics and roughness ranges. However, it should also be possible to obtain such surfaces using ultrasonic elliptical turning, but in order to obtain the desired surface, it is necessary to obtain the right set of cutting parameters. This paper, therefore, aims to develop a method to calculate the cutting parameters needed to such surface, basing itself on topography simulation and conventional optimization. The method consists on using shape functions which are capable of reproducing the shape of the surface to be obtained in function of the cutting parameters (being based specifically on feed rate and cutting speed) and using gradient-based optimization methods to find the optimal parameters. The method was implemented and tested considering a problem of maximization of surface area with a roughness constraint, problem developed considering the needs of dental implants. The implementation was shown to be capable of consistently obtaining a surface with the desired characteristics. However, a simplified mathematical model was used, and experimental validation was not done, matters which shall be dealt with in future research. -
Backmatter
- Title
- ABCM Series on Mechanical Sciences and Engineering
- Editors
-
Déborah de Oliveira
Maksym Ziberov
Alisson Rocha Machado
- Copyright Year
- 2024
- Publisher
- Springer Nature Switzerland
- Electronic ISBN
- 978-3-031-43555-3
- Print ISBN
- 978-3-031-43554-6
- DOI
- https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-43555-3
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