Advances in Sustainable Construction Materials

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Sustainable Material Alternatives and Special Concrete

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Strength and Behavior of Hybrid Fiber-Reinforced Geopolymer Concrete Columns Under Uniaxial Compression

      A. K. Mallinadh, T. Chandra Sekhar Rao, N. V. Ramana Rao

      Abstract

      An experimental investigation is conducted on the blended GGBS with fly ash-based geopolymer concrete. In this investigation, it is aimed to know the mechanical properties of the geopolymer concrete as well as the crushing strength of the short columns under monotonically increasing uniaxial compressive loading. The short columns are casted with the incorporation of steel and polypropylene fibers by hybridization of fibers in the ratios of 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2% along with longitudinal reinforcement. Conventional reinforced columns of the same geometry and same strength are also casted and tested to make a comparison between GPC and conventional RCC to know the behavior under uniaxial loading. The possible effects of volume fraction of fibers are studied. The experimental results are validated with analytical equation proposed for conventional reinforced cement concrete short columns. A good agreement is achieved between experimental and analytical results.

   3. Performance Studies on Self Compacted Geo-polymer Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete

      Gudipally Madhumitha, B. Narendra Kumar

      Abstract

      In the ongoing years, both industries and academics are concentrating towards the advancement of sustainable composites reinforced with fibres. The self-compacting geopolymer concrete with the addition of polyvinyl alcohol fibre (PVA) and steel fibre with ambient curing conditions incorporating with metakoalin, fly ash, GGBS showed better mechanical properties and durability properties of the hardened concrete. Geopolymer concrete is an innovative concrete in which cement is completely replaced due to which the emission of CO₂ can be reduced, and it also assures the early strength of concrete and reduces the time. In the present study, the fresh properties and hardened properties of self-compacting geopolymer concrete with the combination of steel and polyvinyl alcohol fibre with the different percentages (0.1, 0.2, 0.3, 0.4%) are studied. Fresh properties were assessed using slump flow, T50 sec, L-box and V-funnel tests. Hardened properties were evaluated at 7 and 28 days using compressive strength, split tensile strength and flexural strength. It is observed that the workability of concrete with addition of fibres is reduced though there is an increase in hardened properties.

   4. Experimental Studies on Brick Masonry Elements with Geo-fabric Bed Joint Reinforcement

      K. S. Sreekeshava, A. S. Arunkumar, B. V. Ravishankar

      Abstract

      This work focuses on the behavior of brick masonry elements with and without geo-fabric as bed joint reinforcement. The geo-fabrics are new geo-synthetic composite material used for several civil engineering applications to enhance the properties of structures. In this present work, geo-fabric is used as a bed joint reinforcement in different masonry elements like prisms, triplets, and wallets. A total of 12 masonry wallet (700 × 700 × 230 mm) specimens, i.e., six strengthened with geo-fabric and six without geo-fabric, were tested under 2000 kN loading frame for uni-axial and diagonal compression. The effect of strength on the compressive strength of the prisms was discussed. Moreover, the effect of geo-fabric on the bond strength, modulus of elasticity, and shear stress behavior of the specimens was analyzed. The test indicates that geo-fabric-strengthened brick masonry elements showed a better performance compared with un-strengthened controlled specimens.

   5. Material Characterization of Ancient Mortar and Renovation of Heritage Structures for Sustainability—A State-of-the-Art Review

      D. Nikhil Kumar, Rathish Kumar Pancharathi

      Abstract

      With the newly formed Telangana State, there comes the responsibility to protect and maintain the culture and heritage of historic structures to attract tourism and to a broader aspect to be able to protect the heritage for the generations to come and maintain sustainability. It is important to renovate the heritage structures which are under the verge of collapse or collapsed already. For renovation, there should be availability of the same ancient materials for reconstruction. But, as many of the ancient materials used are not available currently, there is a need to characterize those materials and develop alternate materials compatible with the ancient materials exhibiting similar strength and durability characteristics. The present paper is a state-of-the-art paper that conglomerates the studies on repair of heritage structures from material point of view, thereby aiming at developing a methodology which would standardize a repair strategy on ancient mortar in heritage structures in the Telangana State in particular and the country in general.

3. Embodied Energy, Carbon Footprint and Impact on Sustainability

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Influence of Alkali–Silica Reaction on Geopolymer Concrete

      D. Annapurna, Ravande Kishore

      Abstract

      Geopolymer concrete (GPC) is an emerging environmental-friendly construction material. Extensive research related to strength and durability studies is being carried out on this material. However, it is essential to check the mechanism of potential reactive aggregates with geopolymer binder. Alkali–silica reaction (ASR) is one of the major problems faced by concrete structures. ASR is a chemical reaction that occurs between the hydroxyl ions present in pore water within the concrete matrix and certain forms of silica present in aggregate leading to the formation of silica gel. Volumetric expansion of silica gel produces internal stresses in the concrete and leads to strength loss, cracking and failure of the structure. In the present investigation, quartz is selected as a reactive aggregate in combination with geopolymer binder. Mortar bar test is conducted based on IS 2386-Part-7 (1963). Further fly ash and GGBS are selected as binding materials for five different proportions. Special fabricated container is used to store the specimen until the day of test. Length measurements are carried out on mortar bar specimen using length comparator after 1, 2, 3, 6, 9 and 12 months as specified by Indian standards. Elongations of all geopolymer mortar mixes at 180 days are within 0.06% as specified by IS 2386-Part 7, i.e. geopolymer binder is not deleterious with reactive aggregates and hence economical in the areas having inadequate availability of high-quality aggregates. Further, no clear trace of ASR gel is visualized through microstructure of geopolymer mortar specimen. However, bright ASR gel is identified on controlled mortar specimen prepared using Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) as binder through scanned electron microscope (SEM).

4. Life Cycle Assessment of Materials

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Life-Cycle Assessment of Production of Concrete Using Copper Tailings and Fly Ash as a Partial Replacement of Cement

      Rahul Dandautiya, Ajit Pratap Singh

      Abstract

      Utilization of anthropogenic wastes in the production of building materials is an utmost necessity in the present-day context. The primary objective of this study is to assess the impact of concrete production on the surrounding environment due to partial replacement of cement with  copper tailings and fly ash. In this study, global warming potential (GWP) and emissions resulted due to the production of concrete have been comprehensively quantified using life-cycle assessment (LCA) analysis. While performing the analysis, all important resources (like electrical energy, raw materials used, and water consumption associated with procurement, utilization, maintenance, and recycling to their final disposal) have been considered. The guiding consensus frameworks, nomenclatures, and different available methodologies have been referred from ISO 14040. For concrete, one cubic meter has been taken as a functional unit throughout the study for evaluation and comparing all the parameters. To perform LCA analysis, UMBERTO NXT tool has been used by taking into consideration of input parameters associated with the proportion of raw materials used in the production of concrete (e.g., cement, sand, aggregates, admixtures, fly ash, copper tailings, and water), its storage and transportation, and distribution. The results obtained from the study demonstrates how the utilization of alternative wastes materials is beneficial in the production of concrete while minimizing adverse environmental impact in a sustainable manner.

   3. Evaluation of Sustainable Material Through Life Cycle Assessment Using PSI Method

      Suchith Reddy Arukala, Vaibhav P. Kalpande, Rathish Kumar Pancharathi

      Abstract

      This study demonstrates the method to achieve energy savings in the construction of buildings by using LCA techniques for the selection of sustainable ingredients of concrete. The study integrates technological aspect with environmental, social, and economic aspects. In this study, the effects of various sustainable factors on sustainable criteria including technological aspect such as practicability, recyclability, innovative technology, etc., are evaluated by passing the material through the life cycle process. Five coarse aggregate materials are passed through life cycle stages (preconstruction, construction, and postconstruction stages). Based on the effects of various alternatives on sustainable factors, a sustainable coarse aggregate material is selected. The importance of sustainable factors was identified and the material alternative is prioritized using Preference Selection Index (PSI) method. This approach can be implemented in any material alternatives to select the best material. The results of the study reveal that sintered fly ash aggregate has a higher PSI value (0.943) ten crushed gravel a has lower PSI value (0.903). The final ranking of coarse aggregate by using the PSI method is Sintered fly ash > Granulated blast slag > Bloated clay > Recycled from demolition waste > Crushed gravel.

5. Advanced or Alternative Construction Materials

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Shear Strength of Fly Ash and GGBS Based Geopolymer Concrete

      B. Sumanth Kumar, Arnab Sen, D. Rama Seshu

      Abstract

      Concrete is being acknowledged as the second mostly used material worldwide after water but unfortunately, it is also the second largest generator of carbon dioxide from cement production after the automobile industry. It has become inevitable to find a better suitable alternative for cement to reduce carbon footprint. Geopolymer concrete is in fact, a step towards this direction in which concrete is being produced without the use of conventional cement. It also encourages the use of industrial wastes as binder due to its chemical action with alkaline solutions to produce in-organic molecule. The present application of geopolymer concrete is mostly restricted to precast construction. In precast construction, connective distress is witnessed in shear interface regions where shear stresses may lead to sliding failure along the well-defined plane in structures like corbel, bearing shoe, etc. This paper deals with interfacial shear strength study on fly ash and ground granulated blast slag (GGBS) based geopolymer concrete for different grades of concrete without and with shear reinforcement. An equation is developed for shear strength of geopolymer concrete.

6. Recycling and Reuse of Construction Materials

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Effect of Different Hydrophobic Treatments on Properties of Recycled Aggregate Concrete

      Ramswaroop Mandolia, Salman Siddique, Sandeep Chaudhary

      Abstract

      The rapid infrastructure development in India has given rise to problems regarding management of construction and demolition waste. On the other hand, the negative impact of mining for natural resources has raised serious concerns about the environment. The government of India recognising the need of alternative aggregates for concrete permitted the utilisation of recycled and unconventional aggregates in the production of concrete. Previous studies regarding recycled aggregate concrete have mentioned the detrimental effect of recycled aggregates on concrete durability. The current study was designed to investigate the influence of three different types of hydrophobic treatments on mechanical and durability properties of recycled aggregate concrete. The concrete mix was designed to replace natural coarse aggregate by 10, 20 and 30% of coarse recycled aggregate. The recycled aggregate concrete mixes were subjected to (a) mixing-based treatment (b) aggregate-based treatment (c) surface-based treatment method. It was observed that mixing- and surface-based treatments improved the mechanical (compressive and flexural strength) and durability (acid attack, sulphate attack, chloride attack and DIN permeability) performance of concrete. For aggregate-based treatment, high-quality control was required failing which the durability of concrete was compromised.

   3. Strength and Water Absorption Characteristics of Cement Stabilized Masonry Blocks Using Brick Masonry Waste

      B. M. Vinay Kumar, B. V. Surendra

      Abstract

      The experimental study deals with assessment of strength and water absorption of cement stabilized masonry blocks (CSMB) using brick masonry waste as prime ingredient. The brick powder (BP) is recovered from brick masonry waste, and it is used in conjunction with natural fine aggregate (NFA) in production of CSMB units. The size of CSMB specimens corresponds to 190 × 90 × 90 mm as per IS 1725:2013 and prepared by applying compaction pressure of 3.0 MPa. Nine mix compositions are considered by varying BP, NFA as 60:40, 70:30 and 80:20, respectively, with percentage of cement content as 8, 10, and 12. The wet compressive strength of CSMB specimens is determined at end of 28 days, and the test results are statistically analyzed. The average compressive strength of CSMB specimens in wet condition meets the compliance requirement of 3.5 MPa for the different values of prime variants included in the study. The water absorption characteristics are also in compliance with the requirement of being less than 18% in all the cases. BP or NFA content has a relatively minor influence on compressive strength. However, it is still justifiable to blend both of them in 70:30 proportions based on mouldability and availability considerations.

7. MCDM Methods for Selecting Alternative Construction Materials

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Application of BIM Integrated LCA for Sustainable Habitat—A Review

      Subbarao Yarramsetty, M. V. N. Sivakumar, P. Anand Raj

      Abstract

      It is strongly agreed by many researchers and policymakers to lower the global warming potential (GWP) largely. Using the life cycle assessment (LCA) concept will address this problem in a better and sustainable manner. Even though it is realised to reduce the life cycle environmental impacts at the initial design stage, but the comprehensive LCA application is controlled by the uncertainties in the selection of the type of design and material. In this paper, an extensive review has been carried out to know the implementation of BIM in LCA studies. Various BIM-enabled LCA tools were studied and their pros and cons were extracted. It is identified that a considerable amount of research is done in implementing the BIM for all the LCA stages except the recycling stage. Some of the important observations made from the review are (1) an integrated procurement process to be implemented to link with the BIM. (2) Development of linking software, which is free from interoperability issues between BIM and LCA, various simulation software.

   3. A Qualitative and Quantitative Approach to Prioritize Sustainable Concrete Using TOPSIS

      Suchith Reddy Arukala, Rathish Kumar Pancharathi, P. Anand Raj

      Abstract

      Cement industry consumes high energy producing emissions and waste to the environment. In order to reduce the effects (environmental impact, energy, and resources) caused by conventional materials, various by-products and pozzolanic materials are used to achieve sustainable concrete. Assessing the sustainable performance of concrete based on multiple conflicting attributes is decisive and compelling. It is difficult to choose an alternative among various supplementary cementitious material (SCM) with respect to a set of qualitative and quantitative performance attributes. The present study utilizes and explores the importance of Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) in selecting the best sustainable cementitious material. The study has considered five different concretes made of OPC, fly ash, GGBS, metakaolin, and composite cement at a particular grade and observed their performance based on ten qualitative attributes and eight quantitative attributes (workability, compressive strength, split tensile, flexural strength, sorptivity, and life-cycle cost). From the results, it was observed that considering all attributes, fly ash-based concrete has higher performance and is prioritized among others. The developed approach facilitates the decision-makers in the selection of a sustainable alternative.

   4. Prioritizing the Aggregate Source Based on Particle Packing Density Using Modified Toufar Model and MCDM Methods

      Saurav Shah, Rajan Sharma, Shashi Paswan, Ashish Bhandari, Suchith Reddy Arukala, Rathish Kumar Pancharathi

      Abstract

      In concrete works, to obtain optimum packing density it is necessary to attain effective packing of solid particles. Concrete with best maximum packing density (PD) is preferred for construction works as it is strong, durable, and economical. Performance of concrete is affected by type and degree of packing of its constituents. Ideal proportion for concrete depends not only on grading curve of aggregate but also on packing characteristics of fine components. In this paper, the optimization of different sources of the aggregate mix is done to obtain the best packing density using one of the particle packing models, i.e., modified Toufar model (MTM). The objective of this paper is to select the appropriate source of an aggregate of suitable size and in required proportion to get the suitable combination for optimal packing and also to compare the obtained results with the specifications provided in IS 383.

   5. A Framework to Select Fine Aggregate Alternative Using MCDM Methods

      P. Sumasree, G. Anuhya, M. Jahnavi, P. Pratyusha, Suchith Reddy Arukala, Rathish Kumar Pancharathi

      Abstract

      Aggregate industry consumes high energy and produces major emissions to the environment. In order to reduce the effects (environmental impact, energy, and resources) caused by conventional materials, various by-products, waste, and recycled materials are used to achieve sustainability in concrete. Assessing the concrete performance based on multiple conflicting attributes is decisive and compelling. It is difficult to choose a fine aggregate alternative among the various materials considering a set of quantitative performance criteria. Hence, the present study utilizes the theories of decision making to prioritize a fine aggregate alternative keeping in view environment and technological aspects. The objective of the present study is to evaluate, compare, and optimize the suitable alternative considering 11 criteria, based on physical and mechanical properties, fresh property, replacement intensity, and cost using Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) and preference selection index (PSI) methods. The findings of the study reveal that the criteria ‘Replacement Intensity (RI)’ influence the material prioritization. Among the identified seven fine aggregate alternatives, in both the methods, the alternative foundry sand has performed better by 116% more than the natural sand. This proved to be the priority among the aggregates investigated. The developed approach facilitates decision-makers in selecting the best alternative.

8. Green Building Solutions

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Comparison of Embodied Energy in Different Bamboo-Based Houses

      Jagadish Vengala

      Abstract

      The focus of energy conservation process is primarily towards low energy consumption. Energy can be conserved through efficient utilisation of technology. Extensive amount of energy is spent during manufacturing process and transportation of various building materials. Total energy can be divided into (a) energy required for generation of essential building materials (b) energy required for transportation of materials and (c) energy required for assembling materials needed to form the building. Embodied energy of a house is normally about five times its yearly energy consumption, and it accounts for almost ten per cent of the overall energy consumption during its life cycle. The building materials are so selected so as to cause minimum environmental impact during manufacture, use and disposal. In this paper, four types of house models, namely IPIRTI-TRADA bamboo house (ITBH), timber-prefabricated bamboo house (TPBH), steel-prefabricated bamboo house (SPBH) and mud bamboo house (MBH), have been used for the calculation of total embodied energy. In addition, embodied energy as result of transportation of raw materials to factory and transportation of finished products to end user has been calculated. When we compare bamboo-based houses with RCC houses, total energy value is found to vary between 30 and 60% of total energy of RCC houses.

9. Sustainable Design and Energy Efficiency

   1. Frontmatter

   2. Development of Thermal Remote Sensing NDT Method for Early Age Strength Estimation of Concrete

      Kumar Kumarapu, M. Shashi, K. Venkata Reddy

      Abstract

      Infrastructural development is the major key factor for overall growth in India. Construction industry lacks continuous monitoring and evaluation for structural parameters which can reduce structural failures. Monitoring the concrete at early ages during construction can be done by various non-destructive techniques (NDT) methods. Concrete maturity method (CMM) is one among the NDT methods, specially employed for estimating the early age strength by analysing heat produced in concrete. Temperature emitted through hydration process of concrete is considered as a key parameter in evaluating maturity of concrete. CMM in conjunction with thermal Remote sensing imaging sensor is a motivating alternative for thermocouples to estimate strength in early stages of concreting. Three different concrete mix designs, i.e. M20, M40 and M60, are chosen for evaluating the study. A controlled curing environment is established for specimens in a thermocol box for conducting the study which does not get affected to external climatic conditions. According to the specified imaging time intervals of 30, 60, 120 and 180 min, around 2500 thermal images of concrete specimens are obtained by thermal camera and processed for surface temperature variations. By examining the developed time–temperature graphs, it is observed that there is a gradual downfall of temperature during the initial setting time of concrete. Maturity indices of concrete are generated by time–temperature graphs of specimens. Calibration curve is derived by the observed temperatures at specific time interval and simultaneously compressive strengths of concrete at the same time. The hybridisation of thermography, photogrammetric and computer vision techniques like image analysis serves in interpreting the early age strength gain of concrete.

   3. A Study on Plastic Cell Filled Concrete Pavement with Partial Replacement of Recycled Aggregate for Low Volume Road

      P. Narender Kumar, A. Ramesh, R. Durga Prasad

      Abstract

      The use of natural aggregate (NA) plays a vital role in the construction of cement concrete pavements. Depletion of natural aggregate has a major impact on the environment. One among the possibility of protecting the impact on environment is with the use of concrete debris as recycle material which shall act as a partial substitute for natural aggregate in pavement construction. Improving the mechanical properties and reducing the life cycle cost of the cement concrete pavement on low volume roads is always a major challenge for the field engineers and researches. The use of plastic cell filled concrete economizes the life cycle cost of cement concrete pavement. This article aims in the evaluation of mechanical properties of a plastic cell filled concrete when partially replaced with recycled aggregate (RA). In the first stage, optimum RA was determined and was achieved as 30%. During the second stage, optimum RA was used for the preparation of plastic cell filled concrete of M20 grade. Mechanical properties like flexural strength, compressive strength, beam compression, hardness and durability properties were studies for cubes, beams and cylinders. The test results outperformed for M20 grade mix concrete prepared with partial RA and plastic cell.