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2023 | Book

New Trends on Bio-cementation and Self-healing Testing Read chapter Read first chapter

Advances on Testing and Experimentation in Civil Engineering

Materials, Structures and Buildings

Editors: Carlos Chastre, José Neves, Diogo Ribeiro, Maria Graça Neves, Paulina Faria

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

Book Series : Springer Tracts in Civil Engineering

Part of: Springer Professional "Wirtschaft+Technik" , Springer Professional "Technik" , Springer Professional "Wirtschaft"

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About this book

This book presents the most recent advances on testing and experimentation in civil engineering, especially in the branches of materials, structures, and buildings, complementing the authors’ publication Advances on Testing and Experimentation in Civil Engineering - Geotechnics, Transportation, Hydraulics and Natural Resources. It includes advances in physical modelling, monitoring techniques, data acquisition and analysis, and provides an invaluable contribution to the installation of new civil engineering experimental facilities. The first part of the book covers the latest advances in the testing and experimentation of key domains of materials, such as bio-cementation and self-healing, durability, and recycled materials, as well as the new environmental requirements related to the presence of hazardous substances in construction materials. Furthermore, laboratory and in situ tests, together with equipment needed to estimate the behaviour and durability of construction materials are presented, updating the most important technological advances. The second part of the book highlights the relevance of testing and monitoring in structures, including in situ tests related to static load tests, dynamic tests, and long-term monitoring strategies, as well as laboratory tests of adhesive joints. Experimental tests on shake tables and blast-resistant structures are also described. Recent applications of drone technologies for the inspection and monitoring of civil structures are another important theme developed. Finally, in its third part, the book presents new developments in the characterisation of building testing, with the support of modelling, to assess building pathology and new requirements, acoustic comfort, fire safety, visual comfort, and energy consumption.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

Materials

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. New Trends on Bio-cementation and Self-healing Testing
Abstract
In the last decade, a significant effort was made by research institutions and industry to change ordinary construction materials into green, smart, adaptive, and advanced materials. Green materials (for example bio-cement) are developed to reduce carbon footprint and waste, using biological agents replacing common binders. Smart materials can monitor their condition and respond to state changes as designed. Examples of smart materials are composite materials that can heal autonomously after structural damage occurs. Nevertheless, despite the disposition of the construction industry to accept innovations being at high, these green and smart materials will only prevail if they prove to be sustainable and useful in the long-term. To this, they need to be adequately characterized and the benefits in comparison with conventional materials assessed. However, the standardized methods and apparatus used to characterize the conventional materials are often not adequate to these materials, either because of their atypical composition, therefore requiring different tests (e.g., chemical analysis) or lack of standardized methods to evaluate the specific property. This chapter describes and discusses the recent developments in the testing of green materials such as bio-cemented and self-healing materials.
Rui Micaelo, Paulina Faria, Rafaela Cardoso
Chapter 2. Testing Durability on Construction Materials
Abstract
The durability of construction materials is a key concern and can be related to different actions such as weathering conditions outdoors enhanced by climatic change, chemical and biological attack, abrasion, and other conditions of service over time. Frequently, several actions develop simultaneously, making it difficult to reproduce in situ conditions in laboratory. Furthermore, testing to assess durability depends largely on the nature of the material itself or on the way it has been assembled with other materials. The ageing techniques to assess long-term durability performance of construction materials are based on accelerated durability tests, which include, for example, thermal stress, freeze–thaw cycles, air pressure, salt crystallization, chemical weathering, and ultraviolet radiation. These tests allow the assessment of the materials’ structural integrity, as well as their aesthetics. In this chapter, the main trends on durability tests on construction materials, such as clay-based, cementitious and polymeric composites, natural stone, metals, wood, and bituminous binders and mixtures, will be presented and discussed.
Carlos Chastre, Paulina Faria, José Neves, Marco Ludovico-Marques, Hugo Biscaia, Lina Nunes
Chapter 3. Innovative Durability Tests on Construction Materials
Abstract
Innovation in structures and construction materials demands a more accurate performance analysis during the life cycle. In addition, climatic changes pose new challenges to civil infrastructures that were not so relevant in the past. In most cases, the traditional test methods cannot accurately assess the complex phenomena involved in durability. The modern and complex factors require a different approach to durability analysis. The purpose of this chapter is to present innovative durability tests on construction materials: wood; rammed earth, cob and unfired blocks; natural stone; bituminous binders and mixtures; and Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) to concrete bonded connections. Most of these tests concern the accelerated simulation of the main phenomena involved in durability performance – ageing – of the materials and structures, such as wet-dry cycles, UV exposure, salt water immersion, salt fog cycles, and action of biological agents The demonstration and validation of the new durability test methods on construction materials are supported by the description of some case studies based on experimental research.
Carlos Chastre, Paulina Faria, José Neves, Marco Ludovico-Marques, Hugo Biscaia, Lina Nunes
Chapter 4. Testing of New Composites Incorporating Recycled Materials
Abstract
This chapter presents the most recent and innovative testing techniques for evaluation of new composites incorporating recycled materials in civil engineering infrastructures, namely concrete structures and pavements. Recycled materials are commonly used in transport infrastructures through the incorporation in unbound and bound layers of pavement roads and, more recently, in concrete structures as well as various types of mortars. Moisture damage, affinity, durability, and mechanical performance are some important concerns within the conformity assessment of recycled aggregates, binders, asphalt and hydraulic mixes under special climate and traffic conditions. Regarding concrete and mortars, it is important to understand the influence of new recycled materials on their deterioration process. In an infrastructure produced with conventional constituent materials, concrete and mortars will probably deteriorate gradually and not suddenly and catastrophically. Usually, the deterioration process can be more relevant only after some time, depending on numerous factors such as quality of concrete and environmental and durability requirements. Thus, associated with the use of recycled materials, it is essential to determine the infrastructures’ performance in measurable terms at the time of its completion and during its service life. Therefore, a detailed survey on the main testing techniques, in relation to the main deterioration mechanisms (physical, mechanical, and chemical processes) of concrete and pavement, is presented.
Jorge de Brito, Pedro Raposeiro da Silva, José Neves
Chapter 5. New Environmental Requirements
Abstract
In the construction sector, overall policies on resource efficiency and the circular economy have as one of their objectives the shift from the use of natural materials to industrial by-products and materials recovered from waste. In this context, the assessment of the presence of hazardous substances in construction products and the corresponding implications for the environment—soil, air and water—as well as for health is an increasingly relevant topic. This chapter presents the environmental regulations related to the presence of hazardous substances in construction materials, the current developments in harmonized test methods for environmental monitoring of these materials as well as the perspectives regarding European environmental limit values for pollutants. Furthermore, environmental criteria for construction materials based on environmental product declarations, ecolabels and other schemes, intended to inform citizens about environmental performance, are also addressed.
Isabel M. Martins, Helena M. Silva

Structures

Frontmatter
Chapter 6. Remote Inspection and Monitoring of Civil Engineering Structures Based on Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
Abstract
This chapter describes recent contributes for the remote inspection and monitoring of civil engineering structures with the support of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Regarding the remote inspection, dedicated computer-vision methodologies are presented for the automatic detection of cracks and exposed steel rebars on reinforced concrete (RC) structures. Two distinct image processing techniques are used: one based on heuristic features and other based on deep learning. In case of deep learning the stages related to the image database, as well as the training and validation are detailed. Both techniques are successfully applied to the case study of a building facade and a large-scale silo structure. In relation to the monitoring, an innovative methodology for estimating in-plane structural displacements based on video systems and UAVs is presented. As the structure and the UAV are both in motion, the estimation of the absolute structural displacements involves, first, the evaluation of the relative displacements of the UAV-structure based on target tracking, and second, the UAV motion subtraction based on the data derived from an embedded Inertial Measuring Unit (IMU). The validation of the proposed methodology is based on an exploratory test performed in the field, which conducted to very satisfactory and promising results.
Diogo Ribeiro, Ricardo Santos, Rafael Cabral, Rui Calçada
Chapter 7. Laboratory Tests on Structural Adhesive Joints
Abstract
Since the Greek and Roman times adhesive structural connections have been used to join individual members of a structure to form a complete assembly. In this chapter, a review of the different laboratory tests on structural adhesive joints is given. These tests aim to assess the performance of the adhesive connection when subjected to normal or shear stress, or a combination of these field stresses. The test setup and the corresponding test protocols will also be addressed, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, some examples of innovative laboratory tests on structural adhesive joints between different materials will be presented and discussed in more detail.
Hugo Biscaia, Carlos Chastre
Chapter 8. Shake Table Testing Techniques: Current Challenges and New Trends
Abstract
Shake table tests play an important role in the research carried out worldwide to improve existing knowledge on the seismic performance of buildings and other civil engineering structures, including non-structural elements, and also for the seismic qualification of electromechanical equipment. Due to physical constraints, testing of real scale models is usually restricted to small sized structures. For larger structures, reduced scale models are required; otherwise, only substructures can be tested. Each of these approaches presents a different challenge. In reduced scale models, the choice of the scale factor and the similitude law is determined by the type of structure being tested and the relevant phenomena involved. Testing of substructures usually requires an elaborate testing setup in order to impose the necessary boundary conditions. More recently, the development and implementation of hybrid simulations allows carrying out tests on real scale structures combining a physical model on a shake table, where the non linear phenomena occur, with a numerical model in a computer, usually with linear elastic behavior, which can be much larger than the actual testing facility limits. This chapter will address several shake table test methods, focusing on the issues and challenges involved in each one, and the most recent developments on this topic.
Paulo X. Candeias, António A. Correia, Gidewon G. Tekeste
Chapter 9. Experimental Research and Development on Blast Resistant Structures
Abstract
Structures are usually designed to withstand a broad set of loads (e.g., gravity, wind, temperature changes and earthquakes). However, over the last few decades, wars, terrorist attacks and accidental explosions, have raised up the need to consider blast loads in the construction of relevant public or private infrastructures. The successful design of blast resistant structures requires a deep understanding of the effects of explosions on structures, which can only be achieved by extensive experimental campaigns and comprehensive numerical simulations. This chapter presents an experimental research programme that has been established to assist the development of blast resistant solutions for structures that may be subjected to accidental or intentional explosions on industrial and/or critical/governmental infrastructure and buildings and military/peacekeeping operations infrastructures. The research includes explosive field tests on RC façade panels, strengthened to resist the blast actions or provided with energy dissipation connectors to the main building structure and sacrificial cladding connectors for ventilated façades. These solutions, aim to reduce the blast effects on buildings subjected to accidental or intentional explosions, minimizing injuries and life losses of their occupants.
Gabriel Gomes, Hugo Rebelo, Válter Lúcio, Corneliu Cismasiu, José Mingote
Chapter 10. Load Tests on Bridges
Abstract
This chapter presents an overview on the state-of-the-art procedures for load tests on bridges and on the applicable sensing and data acquisition technologies. Best practices for the planning, preparation and execution of load tests are presented. The discussion is supported by practical applications in which the authors have been involved during the last 20 years. Selected case studies are used to illustrate the role of load tests during commissioning of new bridges, during rehabilitation works and as part of the assessment of existing bridges.
Mário Pimentel, Joaquim Figueiras, Carlos Félix, Filipe Cavadas, Emanuel Tomé, Carlos Rodrigues, Bruno Costa
Chapter 11. Dynamic Testing on Railway Bridges
Abstract
This chapter describes a set of dynamic tests that are frequently performed in railway bridges during their lifecycle, particularly in the construction, reception, and operation phases. Typically, the dynamic testing of railway bridges involves ambient vibration and free vibrations tests, as well as dynamic tests under the passage of traffic loads. In this scope, the typical framework of the dynamic monitoring system is described, particularly in what concerns the sensor types, data acquisition systems (DAQs), communication protocols and data processing. A special emphasis is given to the data processing techniques which are dedicated to each type of dynamic testing. In case of ambient vibration tests a frequency domain method (EFDD—Enhanced Frequency Domain Decomposition) and a time domain method (SSI—Stochastic Subspace Identification) are detailed. In case of free vibration tests the Logarithm Decrement (LD) and Prony methods are described. For the dynamic test under traffic loads some specific features involving Power Spectrum Density (PSD) functions and train dynamic signatures are used. Additionally, the dynamic tests performed in the Cascalheira bridge, located in the northern line of the Portuguese railway network, are presented as a case study.
Diogo Ribeiro, Cássio Bragança, Artur Silva, Rui Calçada
Chapter 12. An Automated Tool for Long-Term Structural Health Monitoring Based on Vibration Tests
Abstract
Structural Health Monitoring (SHM) programs play an essential role in the field of civil engineering, especially for assessing safety conditions involving large structures such as viaducts, bridges, tall buildings, towers, and old historical buildings. Typically, an SHM process needs to be based on a trustful strategy for detecting structural novelties or abnormal behaviors. Usually, such an approach is complemented with human inspection and structural instrumentation routines, where the latter requires proper hardware equipment and software tools. However, most strategies already published in this topic mainly focus on modal identification procedures and tracking their outputs i.e., structural modal parameters. Such approaches usually lead to high computational costs and can still be insensitive to minor changes in structural behavior, thus missing crucial damage scenarios in their initial manifestations. To circumvent these drawbacks, recent studies showed that the use of symbolic representations derived directly from raw time-domain data (e.g., acceleration measurements) obtained from vibration tests could provide more damage-sensitive responses with lower computational effort. The proposed methodology employs a clustering technique over such symbolic representations within a moving time-window framework and uses a single-valued index to indicate if a novelty (i.e., structural damage and/or interventions, such as maintenance/repair) is present in the acquired data. Two practical studies—a highway and a railway bridge located in France—show that the proposed tool provide an unsupervised and adaptive scheme for automated real-time SHM applications based on vibration tests.
Daniel Soares, Rharã de Almeida Cardoso, Flávio de Souza Barbosa, Alexandre Abrahão Cury

Buildings

Frontmatter
Chapter 13. Innovative Approach on Building Pathology Testing and Analysis
Abstract
The continuous innovation in construction introduces new materials and components that often cannot be analysed with standard testing techniques. Moreover, the lack of information on reference values may prevent the adequate interpretation of the test results. This chapter is focused on the application of innovative in-situ tests that address non-structural materials and components. A review of recent techniques and case studies is conducted, focusing on pathological manifestations that stem from an inadequate hygrothermal behaviour. The determination of the moisture content by non-destructive or semi-destructive techniques is, in that sense, a key example. The other aspect addressed in this chapter is the advanced monitoring of hygrothermal parameters and others that can be of relevance. It provides a clear evolution from point measurements to a continuous assessment of the building state. Hence, the implementation of advanced monitoring techniques in Building Digital Twins is described and its potential for building pathology studies in the logic of asset management is explored. By exploring the literature, the most promising approaches for specific innovative components are analysed.
Nuno M. M. Ramos, Pedro F. Pereira
Chapter 14. Testing for New Requirements for Building Coatings
Abstract
Coatings are an important part of buildings in terms of performance, costs and time needed to be applied, repaired and replaced. They are requested to perform several functions, starting with the protection of the substrates and, therefore, durability of the coated building elements. With the increased concern on ecological performance, energy conservation and economic efficiency, the durability of the coatings themselves and several innovative requirements, such as contributing to lightning, comfort, health (indoors and outdoors) and safety, are also very important nowadays. Therefore, innovative tests have recently been defined, usually designed to reproduce the real actions while other tests have been adapted from tests designed for other materials. The new tests have to be optimized and validated before being formally adopted. This chapter addresses several building coating requirements, namely some which only recently are attracting research. Many innovative tests to assess new requirements and tests that were adapted to properly assess coatings performance are described and are briefly discussed to contribute to advances in research and to the identification of gaps.
Paulina Faria, M. Rosário Veiga
Chapter 15. New Trends in Acoustic Testing in Buildings
Abstract
Acoustic testing techniques are traditionally and most often used to characterise construction materials and construction elements, either to certify compliance with building codes for noise transmission or to check desired architectural acoustic properties. New metamaterials that are being developed with acoustic applications in mind include metal, ceramic and gel foams, porous asphalt and smart sound-absorbing materials that exceed the acoustic performance achievable with conventional materials. Some of these new materials have interesting nonlinear behaviour that requires new testing approaches for their acoustic characterisation and to fully explore their capabilities. Acoustic-based, non-invasive techniques are extremely useful for monitoring the health of built structures, to detect and characterise defects such as cracks and voids, and to locate sources through acoustic imaging. Experimental evaluation of the acoustic behaviour of materials and composite structures is particularly important when it comes to validating numerical models of acoustic propagation, whether for a single material or for extremely complex structures. New trends in low-cost instrumentation technology, such as disposable sensors or direct sensor-ADC interfaces, and large-scale autonomous monitoring systems such as passive acoustic monitoring (PAM) also have potentially very interesting applications in the built environment. The purpose of this chapter is to provide an interdisciplinary overview of the latest developments and emerging techniques in acoustic testing, focusing particularly on existing and possible future applications in the field of civil engineering.
Julieta António, António Tadeu, João Dias Carrilho
Chapter 16. State-of-the-Art and Future Insights into the Material’s Fire Behaviour Tests
Abstract
Fire safety in buildings (FIS) is characterized by the multidimensionality of the contents associated with it, ranging from the behaviour of materials at high temperatures to the evacuation of people in case of fire. FIS is ensured by imposing a set of requirements translated into a legal body consisting of regulations and standardization, whose goal is to reduce the fire risk for occupants and firefighters involved in fighting a fire. The knowledge required to build up this body of law essentially derives from the theoretical evolution that has been consolidated over time. However, there are areas in which this knowledge is derived from tests carried out following standardization, as the case of construction products. In the case of European standardization, it is essential, firstly, to assess, two decades after its publication whether there is a need for adjustments to the conditions under which they are carried out. Secondly, it is necessary to identify possible gaps where the development of new knowledge derives from the performance of tests. This text addresses these two perspectives and the possible consideration of what we call virtual tests.
Miguel Chichorro Gonçalves, António Leça Coelho
Chapter 17. A Modelling Tool for Lighting Systems Based on Visual Comfort and Energy Consumption—Case Study of a Residential Building
Abstract
Most buildings in the European Union (EU) have lighting systems that are outdated and inefficient. To achieve the targets proposed by the EU in terms of decarbonization and energy efficiency in buildings, it is necessary to optimize and moderate the energy consumption in buildings, including the parcel of electricity consumed with lighting. An efficient lighting system in a residential building can easily be achieved through an adequate design using numerical modelling tools. Moreover, a proper lighting design is not only essential for energy efficiency but also for the visual comfort of the occupants, especially when contemporary society spends a large part of its daily life exposed to artificial light, which in turn can lead to sleep disturbance, cancer, and other health problems. This chapter presents the analysis of different lighting systems in a residential single-family building in Portugal using the DIALux modelling tool. This study involves the analysis of the existing lighting system and different solutions that can be implemented to reduce electricity consumption. Moreover, it documents several parameters which can reduce lighting demand in a residential building and highlight the need of standardization of lighting design in the residential sector. In summary, the energy savings that can be achieved by the proposed solutions were determined with this tool, including the impact of the studied parameters on the visual comfort of the residents.
Luis G. Baltazar, João Tapadas
Metadata
Title
Advances on Testing and Experimentation in Civil Engineering
Editors
Carlos Chastre
José Neves
Diogo Ribeiro
Maria Graça Neves
Paulina Faria
Copyright Year
2023
Electronic ISBN
978-3-031-23888-8
Print ISBN
978-3-031-23887-1
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-23888-8