Africa-EU Relations and the African Continental Free Trade Area

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Introduction: Redefining the Dynamics of Power and Economic Partnership in Africa–EU Relations Through the African Common Free Trade Area (AfCFTA)

   Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba, Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka

   Abstract

   This introductory chapter explores the transformative impact of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) on the dynamics of power and economic collaboration between Africa and the European Union (EU). As the largest free trade area in the world by the number of participating countries, AfCFTA represents a significant milestone in African integration and economic development. This study investigates how AfCFTA is reshaping traditional power structures and fostering a new era of economic cooperation between Africa and the EU. The analysis delves into the historical context of Africa–EU relations, highlighting the evolution of economic partnerships and power dynamics. It examines the challenges and opportunities posed by AfCFTA as a catalyst for intra-African trade, economic growth, and regional integration. Furthermore, the book assesses the implications of AfCFTA on the EU's role in Africa, considering potential shifts in influence and collaborative frameworks. The book employs a multidisciplinary approach, drawing on economic, political, and social perspectives to comprehend the multifaceted impacts of AfCFTA on the continent's geopolitical landscape. Through this exploration, the book aims to contribute to the broader discourse on international relations, emphasizing the transformative potential of AfCFTA in fostering a more balanced and mutually beneficial partnership between Africa and the EU. As the global economic landscape continues to evolve, understanding the implications of AfCFTA on power dynamics and economic collaboration becomes essential for policymakers, scholars, and practitioners invested in the future of Africa–EU relations.

3. Chapter 2. Euro-African Relations in a Changing Global Order: Shifting Balance Through the Russia–Ukraine War and the African Continental Free Trade Area?

   Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba

   Abstract

   The world is in a state of flux. Old alliances are shaking while new ones are being formed. More than ever before the post-1945 multilateral order under the hegemony of the United States of America is being challenged by emerging global powers like China and old adversary like Russia. The ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine constitutes a defining factor in the evolving shift in geography of power and geopolitics. Both Africa and the EU are at the centre of these changes. Riding against the wind of nationalism and beggar thy neighbour policies of the 1930s, Africa has launched the African Continental Free Trade Area as a means of fostering more intra-African trade and increasing the contributions of the continent to the global value chains. As the leading trade partner with Africa, the EU is trying to leverage on its historical and ongoing engagements with Africa to preserve access to markets and ensure continuous flow of raw materials. This chapter examines the relationship between Africa and the EU in the context of the ongoing war between Russia and Ukraine and the African Continental Free Trade Area. The overarching questions are how will these changes affect the relations between the two continents? Would the changes bring about better deals for Africa or retain the old paternalistic posturing of the issue? How can Africa leverage on the AfCTA to recalibrate its relations with the EU, especially in the light of new powers that are showing more interests on the continent? This paper will be analysed through the theoretical lens of critical international political economy. It concludes that beyond the sentimental attachment with old partners like the EU, Africa needs to carefully develop a strategy that can enhance its capacity to maximizing its interest in its engagement with both old and new partners.

4. Chapter 3. Analysis of the AU–EU Relations Under the AfCFTA Framework in a Neoliberal Context

   John Mary Kanyamurwa, Ronald Kaddu, Robert Karemire

   Abstract

   This chapter contributes to the plethora of neoliberal evidence that addresses itself to the fundamental regional integration political and economic anxieties, specifically focusing on AfCFTA processes. Employing a political economy approach to qualitatively analyze the AU–EU relations, the chapter analyzes these exchange processes in the context of rampant capitalism effectively ushered in Africa from the late 1980s. We demonstrate that the AfCFTA takeoff in 2021 might not quickly bring easy continental trade leap forward mainly due to uneven returns’ distribution dynamics, structural and logistical AfCFTA challenges and the inevitable neoliberal paradoxes set to adversely shape the agreement’s functionality. We, thus, argue that the integration forces within the AfCFTA parties continue to shape the emerging AU–EU relations, nevertheless, with overall progressive indicators to Africa’s industrial revolution. However, these promises are dependent on appropriate policy options undertaken particularly in the next AfCFTA rounds of negotiations. For AfCFTA to become an effective mechanism for promoting productive AU–EU relations, the analysis recommends profound reconstruction of the agreement provisions in the next rounds of trade discourses to ensure a universally profitable trade regime for all partners.

5. Chapter 4. Improving Intra-African Trade for AfCFTA and Non-AFCFTA Trade Flows Through Trade Policy Regime: Lessons from European Union

   Adebayo Sunday Adedokun

   Abstract

   The establishment of the Africa Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) is a step in the right direction for the development of Africa and its economic emancipation. There are compatriot trade blocs that the new bloc can learn from, chief among them is the European Union. The objectives of this chapter, therefore, is to identify the possible areas that the AU can learn from the EU to achieve her objectives. AfCFTA today is the largest single free trade area in the world, either from numbers of countries or the market size. It has a combined market size of over 1.3 billion and a combined GDP of $3.4 trillion, having a potential to initially lift over 30 million African people from poverty, according to World Bank, putting it ahead of EU, North America Free Trade Area (NAFTA) and any other free trade in the world today. This comes with responsibility on the part of AU and AfCFTA to ensure that the latter is not just a giant on paper but rather a free trade area to jumpstart Africa renaissance and economic relevance in the world. There is no need to reinvent the wheel, once there are institutionalized procedures for economic and trade relations within the EU which could serve as springboard for safe take-off of AfCFTA. Intra-EU trade is more than 50% while Intra-African trade is in the region of 15%, this brings out the beauty of learning by doing for AfCFTA. The study concludes that, quality of institutions is key in trade facilitation if AfCFTA will achieve its objectives of enhancing intra-African trade, there is therefore needed to improve border operations among AU members through unified custom operations and procedures for ease of movements of goods and persons across Africa, until this is done, AfCFTA may be a white elephant project.

6. Chapter 5. Hackathons as a Support Tool for the AU-EU Partnership JAES: A Case Study

   Anna Masłoń-Oracz, Marta Odete F. Da Silva Coelho

   Abstract

   The Africa-EU partnership’s sustainable development objectives for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are frequently revised due to unforeseen events that shift the path toward the agreed fixed timeline. Due to the diversity and volatility of the SSA environment, each nation must address a unique set of needs while also contending with unforeseeable occurrences that might dramatically change their path to attaining sustainable development by a specific date. With this alternation comes the need for European Union (EU) and African financial organizations to redirect official development assistance (ODA) to fund the newly revised sustainable development areas for SSA. With the worldwide pandemic of COVID-19 escalating pre-existing economic, environmental, and sociological difficulties, there is an urgent need to bring SSA nations “back on track” to meet the agreed-upon sustainable development plan for 2027. While COVID-19 continues to have a worldwide impact, SSA nations continue to be among the most badly afflicted nations due to a lack of infrastructure and scarce resources available to allocate. Therefore, there is a need for rapid innovation that can enhance residents’ current living standards in SSA. Fortunately, hackathons have grown in popularity as a method for fostering innovation processes not just within corporations but also within communities. Currently, the World Bank’s Private Sector Development acknowledges that hackathons provide an “all-society approach” in which “entrepreneurs and governments collaborate to produce better [policies]” in Africa (Laure & Stever, 2019). Sebastian Molineus, the World Bank’s Director of the Finance, Competitiveness, and Innovation (FCI) Global Practice, emphasizes this issue further. Molineus states that with hackathons, everyone has a “stake in development, and this multifaceted process” provides a great example of African innovation (ibid.). Thus, hackathons are increasingly being used to address development concerns and become a trusted medium for international ODA agencies such as the World Bank.

7. Chapter 6. Africa–EU Digital Technology Exchange and Agribusiness Development in Developing Economies Within the African Continental Free Trade Area: The Case of Leribe and Thaba-Tseka Districts in Lesotho

   Nthabeleng Lekhanya

   Abstract

   Digital technologies are forces of progress in recent times everywhere in the world. This makes integration of digital technologies a priority in all areas of business contributing to the developmental economic growth and success, including rural agribusinesses in the EU and AU developing countries members, such as Lesotho. The focus of this chapter is to show the role of digital technologies in developing smallholders specifically in Lesotho agribusinesses in rural communities specific to Lesotho. The study aims to investigate the use of digital technology in promoting the use of agribusiness development in Lesotho, which AfCFTA and the EU hope to accelerate through better coordination with existing initiatives to boost agribusiness, the Economic Partnership Agreements with South African Development Countries member states. The findings of this study are drawn from the empirical literature, focus groups, and in-depth interviews and they show that most farmers cannot afford the costs the digital technology and insufficient infrastructure, while the literature also reveals that social influence, literacy, and lack of appropriate policies are the main factors that hinder digitalization. As a result, the most commonly used technology in Lesotho is mobile phones. Empirical data was collected from two selected districts of Lesotho, namely Leribe and Thaba-tseka districts. The researcher draws a sample from farmers and agribusiness owners who are conveniently available for the focus group and in-depth interviews in Leribe and Thaba-tseka districts, sixteen participants from the selected area will participate in two focus group interviews in Leribe and Thaba-tseka districts. The study will follow a qualitative method approach.

8. Chapter 7. Brexit and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA): Some Lessons and Challenges from East Africa

   Ambrose T. Kessy

   Abstract

   This chapter delves into the complexities of regional integration in Africa, particularly focusing on the interplay between Brexit and the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) in relation to the East African Community (EAC) member states. The historical context of African regional integration and the theoretical frameworks, such as pan-Africanism and Afro-optimism, that have influenced it are explored. The potential economic impacts of AfCFTA, including its ability to bolster intra-African trade and mitigate external trade shocks, are assessed. Additionally, the chapter addresses the challenges posed by overlapping regional trade agreements and the specific effects of the United Kingdom’s withdrawal from the European Union on trade relations with East African nations, including issues such as trade negotiations, market access, and economic dependency on external powers. The potential benefits and obstacles in implementing AfCFTA, including economic disparities among African nations and the strategic importance of creating a unified market to enhance trade and economic development, are also examined. The chapter proposes a reevaluation of regional integration strategies, emphasizing the need for infrastructure improvements, reduction of trade barriers, and enhanced political cooperation to realize the economic potentials of AfCFTA. Overall, this chapter serves as a comprehensive analysis of the dynamic between Brexit and AfCFTA, offering insights into the complexities of regional integration in Africa in the face of global political and economic changes.

9. Chapter 8. The Practice of Soft Power in Africa-EU Relations: Is it Optimal or One-Sided?

   Mercy Atieno Odongo

   Abstract

   The paper provides an analysis of the practice of soft power from institutional and continental perspectives with a specific focus on the Africa–European Union relations. It examines the question “is the use of soft power optimal or one-sided in the context of Africa-EU relations or is it applicable to member states or regional and subregional organizations and institutions?”. It provides a critical review of how soft power has shaped complex relations looking at the various levels and theoretical underpinning in the nexus of the relations in the context of African Continental Free Trade Area.

   The paper examines the Africa-EU relations from a historical perspective through various frameworks of cooperation at individual state and regional level with the ultimate objective of assessing the effectiveness and to determine to what extent soft power has shaped the relations. This paper, although restricted to soft power, is of the view that analysis of Africa-EU relations from the smart power lens provides a pathway. This view is shaped by the realization that smart power is critical particularly in a fast-faced world and how it impacts the foreign policy implementation.

   This research paper is relevant in offering a framework for analysis of relations from an institutional perspective and particularly within the context of complex interdependence and cooperation among regional and global organizations as they strive to deal with common global challenges within and outside of their scopes or mandates. The paper contributes to literature and ongoing scholarly debates on regional organizations and international institutions as agents of soft power.

10. Chapter 9. The European Union’s Soft Power in Africa: Model or Placebo?

    Oluwaseun Tella

    Abstract

    While there is growing interest in the exercise of soft power in Africa, few studies have been conducted on the European Union’s (EU) soft power on the continent. This chapter engages this subject by examining the impact of the EU’s soft power projection on Africa, especially in the areas of democracy promotion, aid diplomacy and providing an institutional model for African regional organisations. It also highlights the constraints to successful wielding of the EU’s soft power in Africa and submits that, despite its longstanding relations with Africa, the supranational organisation’s potential to serve as a model is undermined by its neo-colonial image, the new scramble for Africa with the attendant incursion of old and new players on the continent that has presented alternative allies to Africa and more recently, the failure of the EU’s COVID-19 vaccine diplomacy.

11. Chapter 10. African–European Trade Cooperation and the Promise of African Continental Free Trade Area as Africa’s Soft Power

    Victor Fakoya, Bolaji Omitola

    Abstract

    This chapter analyzes the impact of soft power on trade relationships using Africa–Europe as analytical context. It examines the prospects of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) as the epitome of African soft power. Although it may not seem arbitrary to assume that two continents with different socio-cultural attributes, institutional rules, and asymmetrical structural configuration can engage in a mutually beneficial cooperation, it has been observed that the inability of African states to deploy soft power partially accounts for why they are perpetually subservient to Europe in trade relationships. While there is a wealth of scholarly work on AU–EU cooperation in general, there is a dearth of materials on the role of African soft power in intercontinental cooperation. Therefore, this chapter addresses two salient questions. First, can the AfCFTA wield the AU’s soft power? Second, can the deployment of Africa’s soft power change the dynamics of African–European trade relationship? The chapter concludes that the AfCFTA can wield the AU’s soft power, but the ability of Africa to effectively deploy such soft power depends largely on the full implementation of the AfCFTA agreements.

12. Chapter 11. Global Challenges, Regional Interventions: Exploring the Climate Change Adaptation Strategies of the African Union and the European Union

    Olanrewaju Emupenne, Michelle Small

    Abstract

    Climate change is one of humanity's most pressing problems in the twenty-first century. Mitigation and adaptation plans have been developed at the global, regional, and national levels to address the threats posed by climate change. Both the African Union and the European Union are working hard at the regional level to ensure that the effects of climate change on their respective regions are as minimal as possible. Thus, this study explored the impact climate change has had on the livelihoods of the Africans and the Europeans. Nevertheless, the focus of the study is a comparative analysis of the climate adaptation strategies of the African Union and the European Union with the intent of discovering their regularities, similarities, and differences. The study was conducted using secondary data and datasets from Afrobarometer, Eurostat, and Statista, and it is methodically guided by a research question, viz., what makes the climate adaptation strategies of the African Union different from those of the European Union such that a comparison is considered necessary? The datasets from Afrobarometer were descriptively analysed using Microsoft Excel and the followings are some of the findings: climate change affects all humans, in both developed and developing countries; despite Europe emitting more greenhouse gases than Africa, African Union member-states are more vulnerable to climate change; and that the African Union and the European Union approach climate adaptation differently, but with some commonalities. Moreover, the study posits that the strategic partnership between Africa and the European Union is a prime example of the significance of collaborative efforts in combating the climate change issue.

13. Chapter 12. “No One Should Be Left Behind”: EU and Inclusion of Civil Society in the African Common Free Trade Area

    Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka

    Abstract

    Since its inception, the African Union (AU) has been determined to promote trade in goods and services as an impetus for the economic, social, and political integration of its member states. The establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) epitomizes Africa’s endeavour to integrate its fragmented continent, small markets and economies, and feeble infrastructures in line with its Agenda 2063 in order to improve the livelihoods of its citizens. Thus, AfCFTA aimed at boosting intra-African trade through the creation of a single market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and natural persons. However, these cannot be achieved without the full involvement of ordinary citizens in AfCFTA negotiations and implementation with equal rights as stakeholders. Building on the notions of regional integration and the new regionalism approach, this chapter interrogates the contributory role of the European Union to promote the participation of ordinary African citizens in the establishment of the AfCFTA. It does so by investigating the extent to which the EU collaborates with civil society in Africa to ensure the engagement of ordinary citizens in the attainment of the AfCFTA objectives. A desktop review reveals that few attempts were made by the EU to enable African civil society to participate in the few negotiations pertaining to the establishment of the AfCFTA. Apart from its financial support to African civil society organizations, the EU also negotiates with the RECs in Africa in formal and informal settings to include ordinary citizens in their decision-making processes, including the AfCFTA. EU–African relations should be strengthened through the inclusion of ordinary citizens from both continents.

14. Chapter 13. Towards Redefined Dynamics of Power and Economic Partnership in Africa-EU Relations in the Complex Global Order

    Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka, Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba

    Abstract

    This concluding chapter explores the complex power dynamics between Africa and the European Union (EU) while providing a comprehensive overview of various contributions within the book. The timing of this analysis is particularly relevant given the emergence of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA). As both regions aim to redefine their partnership, a detailed examination of their interactions becomes essential. This chapter not only adds to the ongoing discussions on Africa-EU relations but also illuminates the changing landscape influenced by the AfCFTA. The examination of power dynamics establishes a basis for grasping the implications and obstacles that lie ahead during this crucial phase in international relations.

15. 14. Correction to: Africa-EU Relations and the African Continental Free Trade Area

    Leon Mwamba Tshimpaka, Samuel Ojo Oloruntoba

    Abstract

    Since its inception, the African Union (AU) has been determined to promote trade in goods and services as an impetus for the economic, social, and political integration of its member states. The establishment of the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) epitomizes Africa’s endeavour to integrate its fragmented continent, small markets and economies, and feeble infrastructures in line with its Agenda 2063 in order to improve the livelihoods of its citizens. Thus, AfCFTA aimed at boosting intra-African trade through the creation of a single market with free movement of goods, services, capital, and natural persons. However, these cannot be achieved without the full involvement of ordinary citizens in AfCFTA negotiations and implementation with equal rights as stakeholders. Building on the notions of regional integration and the new regionalism approach, this chapter interrogates the contributory role of the European Union to promote the participation of ordinary African citizens in the establishment of the AfCFTA. It does so by investigating the extent to which the EU collaborates with civil society in Africa to ensure the engagement of ordinary citizens in the attainment of the AfCFTA objectives. A desktop review reveals that few attempts were made by the EU to enable African civil society to participate in the few negotiations pertaining to the establishment of the AfCFTA. Apart from its financial support to African civil society organizations, the EU also negotiates with the RECs in Africa in formal and informal settings to include ordinary citizens in their decision-making processes, including the AfCFTA. EU–African relations should be strengthened through the inclusion of ordinary citizens from both continents.

16. Backmatter