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Application of Modified Atmospheres to Control Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne Infestation of Stored Chamomile and Coriander and Its Effect On Product Quality
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Abstract
The study investigates the use of modified atmospheres (MAs) containing CO2 and N2 to control the cigarette beetle and drugstore beetle in stored chamomile and coriander. The research focuses on the sensitivity of different life stages of these insects to various concentrations of CO2 and N2, and the effects of these treatments on the quality of stored products. The findings reveal that higher concentrations of CO2 and N2 significantly increase mortality rates in both adults and larvae, with adults being more susceptible. Additionally, the study examines the impact of CO2-enriched MAs on product quality, including weight loss, color changes, germination percentage, and essential oil extraction. The results show that CO2-treated products experience less weight loss and better preservation of essential oils compared to untreated controls, making this method a promising alternative to chemical fumigation.
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Abstract
Medicinal and spices plants are crucial, and they can become infested by several insects, such as drugstore beetle (Stegobium paniceum l.) and the cigarette beetle (Lasioderma serricorne), during storage. Therefore, the present study aimed to assess the effect of enriched modified atmospheres (MAs), with CO2 or N2, on L. serricorne and S. paniceum adults and larvae and their effect on quality of chamomile flowers and coriander seeds during storage. Various carbon dioxide and nitrogen gas concentrations were tested, including 40% CO2, 50% CO2, 60% CO2, 97% N2, and 98% N2. The larval mortality for S. paniceum reached 100% after 6 days of 60% CO2 and 8 days for the L. serricorne. At 98% N2 treatment, the complete mortality (100%) of S. paniceum and L. serricorne adults was recorded following 3 and 9 day exposures and of larvae following 10 day exposure.
The quality parameters (weight loss percentage, germination, essential oil percentage, and color) of chamomile flower and coriander seeds treated with 60% CO2 and control were studied after 3 and 6 months of storage. The MAs had the lowest weight loss percentage, the highest lightness value, the lowest color changes, and the highest essential oil content of chamomile flower and coriander seeds compared with the control treatment. Additionally, the MAs induced a higher germination percentage of coriander seeds compared with the control. Treatment with CO2 increased some essential oils compounds, compared with control after 6 months of storage of chamomile. All compounds were decreased in coriander seeds treated with CO2, except for carvone and anethole, which were increased. In conclusion, our study recommends using MAs to control S. paniceum and L. serricorne during storage and maintain the quality of chamomile flower and coriander seed.
Introduction
Medicinal and aromatic plants have economic importance in Egypt and many other countries. An important aspect is the production of the essential oils used for the pharmaceutical industry and medical applications in a large set of human and animal diseases (Joy et al. 2001). The medicinal plants are susceptible to various insects and diseases, resulting in losing up to 90% of the crop during storage (Chaudhari et al. 2021). Insect pests are one of the major quality deteriorating agents during the storage of medicinal or aromatic plants. The most common insect pests are the cigarette beetle Lasioderma serricorne Fab. and drugstore beetle Stegobium paniceum L. (Rees 2004). The larvae of these insects feed on stored products and cause the most damage. The adults of these insects do not feed; however, they make tiny holes that penetrate the outside of the seeds and escape packed commodities. Additionally, these adults fly from infested packages to noninfested ones, where future larvae will cause high losses of product. Infested products become contaminated with dead insects, cast skins, pupal cases, and frass (Suneethamma et al. 2018). The cigarette beetle can infest most medicinal plants and is considered the primary insect pest of chamomile flower and coriander seeds, causing high losses on these plants, reaching up to 15.8% and 13.4%, respectively (Hashem et al. 2014a).
Chemical control of pests by insecticides or fumigant gases, such as phosphine, is not allowed, especially in organic farms (Hashem 2000; Zinhoum et al. 2022). Modified atmospheres (MAs) are a successful alternative method to chemical fumigation that provides an environmentally friendly and cost effective approach to protecting stored plant products (Cheng et al. 2012). MAs typically decrease oxygen to create a hypoxic environment by increasing nitrogen or increasing carbon dioxide (Hashem et al. 2014b). Many biotic (such as insect species, insect stage) and environmental factors (temperature, humidity, and gas level) influence the insect response to these methods (Hashem et al. 2021). Previous studies has shown the impact of MAs, utilizing varying amounts of CO2 or high levels of N2, on the development and survival of common coleopterous insect pests. Khalil et al. (2020) studied the effect of different concentrations of CO2 (30, 40, and 50%) against the adults and larvae of red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) at 35 °C and found that the mortality of both stages reached 100% after 4 days at the highest tested concentration. Also, Ahmed et al. (2022) found that the complete mortality was achieved in T. confusum adults after 36 h of exposure to 85% CO2. While, the LT99 were 79, 78, and 148 h when all life stages of Sitophilus zeamais exposed to 60, 80 and 100% carbon dioxide, respectively (Noomhorm et al. 2013). Eissa et al. (2014) treated the adults of Rhyzopertha dominica with 20, 40, 60 and 80% CO2 and the complete mortality was recorded at 60% and 80% CO2 only after 8 and 7 days. In the case of N2 treatments, Ahmed et al. (2017) treated the adults and larvae of Sitophilus oryzae with 97 and 98% N2 and found that the LT95 were 4.66 & 4.42 days for adults and 5.48 & 10.32 days for larvae. On other hand, the complete mortality of treated adults and larvae of Oryzaephilus surinamensis with 98% N2 was recorded at 2 days for adults and 4 days for larvae at 35 °C (Hashem et al. 2021). However, little information is known about the effects of CO2 or N2 on cigarette and drugstore beetles.
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Therefore, more studies are needed to control these insects together using the modified atmosphere with less effects on the quality of stored products. Currently, atmosphere modification is an accepted method of protecting the stored plant product and maintaining its quality (Sen et al. 2010). These experiments aimed to test the sensitivity of drugstore and cigarette beetle larvae and adults to different concentrations of CO2 and N2 as well as how these concentrations affected the quality of stored products.
Materials and Methods
Experiments were conducted in the Laboratory of Modified Atmospheres at the Department of Economic Entomology and Pesticide Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University.
The Effect of MAs On Last Instar Larvae and Newly Emerged Adults of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne
Gas Treatment Equipment
Insect samples were treated with MAs inside Dreshel flasks (capacity, 550 cm3), according to Hashem et al.’s method (2012). The flask’s inlet tube was connected to the gas with a short hose, and the outlet tube was connected to the CO2–O2 analyzer (Servoflex Mini Mp 5200), with another short hose to measure the concentration of carbon dioxide (in CO2 treatments) or oxygen (in N2 treatments) into the flask. A CO2 cylinder and a nitrogen generator were used to supply gas. The gases were measured at the initial and final points of exposure periods.
Insect Treatments
The S. paniceum and L. serricorne were obtained from naturally infested organic chamomile flowers and coriander seeds and reared on an artificial diet consisting of 500 g wheat bran, 500 g flour maize, 250 ml glycerol, 125 g yeast, 250 ml natural honey, and 250 g milk powder (Hashem et al. 2016). Insect cultures were maintained in an incubator at 30 ± 2 °C and 65 ± 5% relative humidity (RH). Last instar larvae and newly emerged adults were separated from the media by brushing.
MA Contents and Exposure Periods
The CO2 concentrations that were tested are as follows: 40% CO2, 12% O2, and 48% N2; 50% CO2, 10% O2, and 40% N2. and 60% CO2, 8% O2, and 32% N2; The tested N2 concentrations included 97% N2 and 3% O2, and 98% N2 and 2% O2 (Hashem et al. 2014c, 2021). The exposure periods for MA treatments ranged from 3 h to 13 days, depending on the required time to reach complete mortality. Twenty specimens (adults or larvae) were kept in a glass tube containing 2 g of diet. The tubes were closed with cloths and tightened with rubber bands. The tubes were put into Dreshel flasks to be treated with MAs. After the gas reached the required concentration, the Dreshel flasks were kept at 25 °C with 65 ± 5% RH for the duration of the exposure period. All MA treatments were repeated three times with similar replicates for the untreated control.
Mortality Percentages of Adults and Larvae
At the end of the exposure period, the Dreshel flasks were aerated, and the insects were transferred to individual Petridishes. The treated larvae and adults were removed and examined to record the mortality percentage, which was corrected according to Abbott’s formula (Abbott 1925).
Effect of MAs Enriched with CO2 On Products Quality
To determine the effect of CO2 on the medicinal plant’s quality, coriander seeds Coriandrum sativum L. (family, Apiaceae) and chamomile flowers Matricaria chamomilla L. (family, Asteraceae) were selected from Sekam farm (organic farm) because these products are favorable for infestation with the insects (Hashem et al. 2014a).
As described by Hashem et al. (2021), each dry product was divided into six groups, 5 kg each, into one cylindrical, plastic 100 L capacity container. Three containers were treated with 60% CO2 for 6 months, and the three control containers were stored without a MA during the same period. All the containers of modified atmosphere and control groups were stored at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C and 60 ± 5% RH) for 6 months. The MA-treated containers were covered with tightly fitted plastic lids placed on the upper rim of the container and secured with a metal collar surrounding the lid to prevent gas leakage. The lid had two 3 cm rounded openings that were tightly blocked with rubber stoppers. Each stopper contained a short copper tube passing through it, one of which was connected to the CO2 gas cylinder with a long plastic hose. The other end was connected to another long hose that reached near the bottom to serve as a gas inlet. The second copper tube was connected to a short outer plastic hose attached to the CO2–O2 analyzer and to a relatively longer inner plastic hose that reached the upper quarter of the container to function as a gas outlet. After the MA treatment, the two copper tubes were connected to each other via a short plastic hose to guarantee the continuous circulation of the gas mixture throughout the exposure period (Fig. 1). The samples for each container were taken after 0, 3, and 6 months of treatment. The tested parameters were recorded as follows:
Fig. 1
Plastic container for MA treatment. a Inner side of the container lid showing the long and short rubber tubes. b The lid tightly covering the plastic container during exposure
Weight loss was recorded every three months during all storage period using the following equation
$$\text{Weight loss \%}= \frac{ \text{Initial weight of sample} -\text{weight of sample after exposure period} } {\text{Initial weight of sample}}\times 100$$
Colour Changes
The change of coriander seeds and chamomile flowers colour during six months was recorded by measuring CIEL*a*b* colour parameters. The colour was measured by Minolta CR 400 colourimeter (Konica Minolta, Japan), A typical white plate was used to calibrate the instrument. The lightness. (L), chroma (C*) and hue angle (h°) were recorded. The hue angle (h) represents the colour difference and is defined as 0 for red–purple, 90 for yellow, 180 for bluish-green, and 270 for blue. The purity or saturation of a colour is measured by chroma (C*). Colour measurement were taken for each treatment every three months during all storage period.
Germination Percentage
Five replicates (100 seeds/rep.) of each treatment were used to determine the germination percentage of coriander. The seeds were germinated by filtration paper (Whatman paper) and incubated at 25 ± 1 °C and 70 ± 5% RH. The number of germinated seeds in each replicate was counted after 7 days and the mean germination percentage (%) was calculated according the following equation. (ISTA 2013).
The quantitative estimation of the oil present in the coriander seeds and chamomile flowers were done using the steam distillation method at Ornamental Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University at harvest time and after the end of storage period. The samples (100 g/replicate) were subjected to hydro-distillation for approximately 3 h in an all glass Clevenger-type apparatus following the method outlined by the British pharmacopoeia 1963. The volume of resulted essential oil was estimated, then dried over anhydrous sodium sulphate and stored in tightly closed dark vials at refrigerator till GC/MS analysis. The essential oil percentage was estimated in dry weight of samples as following equation:
The essential oil of each sample was fractionated using an HP 6890 Series Gas Chromatograph System, with an HP 5973 Mass Selective Detector (GC/MS) at Cairo University Research Park, using a TR-FAME (Thermo 260 M142 P) (30 m, 0.25 mm ID, 0.25υm Film) (70% Cyanopropyl–Polysilphphenylenesiloxane) capillary column. Over-temperature was programmed at 80 °C to 230 °C with a rate of 3 °C/min, then isothermal at 220 °C for 15 min. The injector temperature was maintained at 200 °C, and the carrier gas was helium at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min. The amount of sample injected was approximately 1 μl (5 μl/1 ml solvent). The ionization energy was 70 eV. Qualitative identification of the different constituents was performed through a comparison of their relative retention times and mass spectra to authentic reference compounds (fatty acid methyl esters, purity 98% by GC). Additionally, probability merge search software and the NIST MS spectra search program were used.
Statistical Analysis
Fisher and Duncan’s tests were conducted to determine the significance of treatments on SPSS software as described by Snedecor and Cochran (1967). Probit analysis was conducted on the mortality data, as described by Finney (1971). LT50 and LT95 values were calculated using software developed by Noack and Reichmuth (1978). A correlation study was conducted by the SPSS program (version 14).
Results
Effects of MAs Enriched with CO2 On Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne
The corrected mortality percentages for both species of insects gradually increased with increasing CO2 concentration and exposure period. Additionally, the sensitivity of the insects to the MA treatment varied with the insect stage.
Adult Stage
MAs with 40%, 50%, and 60% CO2 significantly affected adult mortality for both insect species, as shown in Table 1. The corrected mortality percentages of S. paniceum and L. serricorne adults reached more than 50% after 12 and 24 h of exposure and gradually increased to 100% after 48 and 72 h of exposure.
Table 1
Mortality percentages (Mean ± SE) for adults of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres (MAs) containing different concentrations of CO2 combined with several exposure periods at 25 °C
Exposure
Period (h)
Stegobium paniceum
Lasioderma serricorne
40% CO2
50% CO2
60% CO2
40% CO2
50% CO2
60% CO2
3
1.67 ± 1.67c
5.00 ± 0.00c
6.67 ± 1.67c
13.33 ± 8.81d
16.66 ± 12.01d
20.00 ± 15.27d
6
10.00 ± 2.88c
11.67 ± 4.41c
18.33 ± 4.41c
20.00 ± 5.77cd
30.00 ± 5.77d
36.66 ± 14.52cd
12
66.67 ± 3.33b
71.67 ± 6.01b
73.33 ± 1.67b
36.66 ± 6.66c
43.33 ± 6.66cd
63.33 ± 3.33bc
24
75.00 ± 5.00b
78.33 ± 9.28b
88.33 ± 6.67a
56.66 ± 6.66b
70.00 ± 15.27bc
86.66 ± 3.33ab
48
100.00 ± 0.0a
100.00 ± 0.00a
100.00 ± 0.00a
96.66 ± 3.33a
96.66 ± 3.33ab
96.66 ± 3.33a
72
–
–
–
100.00 ± 0.00a
100.00 ± 0.00a
100.00 ± 0.00a
F value
194.206
63.627
128.260
40.09
15.68
13.80
P value
0.000
0.0001
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other at P<0.01 (Duncan test)
Larval Stage
The larval stage of the two species required an extended exposure period to reach total mortality at the adult stage. At low concentrations of CO2 (40%), mortality percentages reached 100% at 11 and 10 days of exposure for S. paniceum and L. serricorne, respectively. Additionally, there was no significant difference between the last four exposure periods. At 50% and 60% CO2, the complete mortality of S. paniceum was recorded after 7 and 6 days, respectively, and the L. serricorne needed 8 days of exposure to reach 100% mortality while exposed to the same concentrations of CO2. The differences were significant between the shortest exposure periods (1–3 days) and the longest exposure periods (8–10 days) for each concentration at both insect species (Table 2).
Table 2
Mortality percentages (Mean ± SE) for larvae of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres (MAs) containing different concentrations of CO2 combined with several exposure periods at 25°C
Exposure
Period (day)
Stegobium paniceum
Lasioderma serricorne
40% CO2
50% CO2
60% CO2
40% CO2
50% CO2
60% CO2
1
0.00 ± 0.00d
0.00 ± 0.00e
13.33 ± 6.67c
3.33 ± 3.33f
6.66 ± 6.66e
10.00 ± 10.00e
2
3.33 ± 3.33d
10.00 ± 0.00de
16.67 ± 3.33c
13.33 ± 6.66f
16.66 ± 8.81e
33.33 ± 6.66d
3
3.33 ± 3.33d
13.33 ± 3.33d
73.33 ± 3.33b
43.33 ± 3.3e
56.66 ± 6.66d
60.00 ± 5.77c
4
13.33 ± 8.82d
43.33 ± 6.67c
90.00 ± 0.00a
50.00 ± 0.00de
60.00 ± 5.77cd
73.33 ± 6.66bc
5
43.33 ± 14.53c
86.67 ± 3.33b
93.33 ± 3.33a
63.33 ± 6.66cd
76.66 ± 6.66bc
83.33 ± 3.33ab
6
50.00 ± 5.77c
93.33 ± 3.33ab
100.00 ± 0.00a
73.33 ± 3.33bc
86.66 ± 6.66ab
93.33 ± 3.33a
7
63.33 ± 14.53bc
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
86.66 ± 6.66ab
93.33 ± 3.33ab
96.66 ± 3.33a
8
76.67 ± 8.82ab
–
–
93.33 ± 6.66a
100.00 ± 0.00a
100.00 ± 0.00a
9
96.67 ± 3.33a
–
–
96.66 ± 3.33a
–
–
10
96.67 ± 3.33a
–
–
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
–
11
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
–
–
–
–
F value
26.827
168.143
119.200
53.33
31.99
32.98
P value
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other at P<0.01 (Duncan test)
Comparative Lethal Times of S. paniceum and L. serricorne Exposed to CO2 Concentrations
Table 3 shows the LT values and confidence limits of MAs enriched in CO2 at 25 °C for adult and larval stages of S. paniceum and L. serricorne. According to the LT50 and LT95 values, the highest toxicity was recorded at a 60% CO2 concentration, at 0.39 and 1.17 days for adults and 2.33 and 5.56 days for larvae of S. paniceum, respectively. The LT50 and LT95 of L. serricorne were 0.33 and 1.68 days for adults and 2.53 and 7.32 days for larvae, respectively. The adults’ susceptibility was similar for both species based on LT50 values. However, based on LT95, the S. paniceum adults were more susceptible than the L. serricorne adults. The larvae of both species were more tolerant to CO2 treatments than the adults. According to the LT50 and LT95, the L. serricorne larvae were more tolerant than the S. paniceum to MAs, especially at 50% and 60% CO2.
Table 3
LT50 and LT95 values, together with their confidence limits, for adults and larvae of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres containing different concentrations of CO2
Insect species
Stage
CO2 (%)
LT50
(Day)
LT95
(Day)
Confidence limits (h)
Slope ± SE
Chi-square
X2
LT50
LT95
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Stegobium paniceum
Adults
40
0.49
1.48
0.27
0.88
1.52
6.45
3.46 ± 0.25
23.05
50
0.45
1.43
0.24
0.82
1.52
7.05
3.26 ± 0.23
23.83
60
0.39
1.17
0.28
0.53
0.94
2.29
3.41 ± 0.25
9.46
Larvae
40
5.64
10.37
5.00
6.24
9.56
12.36
6.22 ± 0.32
47.06
50
3.79
6.49
2.81
4.62
6.39
11.22
7.05 ± 0.48
42.02
60
2.33
5.56
1.27
3.11
5.82
15.98
4.35 ± 0.31
44.29
Lasioderma serricorne
Adults
40
0.5
3.48
0.34
0.99
3.00
12.15
2.14 ± 0.15
24.76
50
0.45
2.51
0.29
0.66
1.96
5.78
2.20 ± 0.15
17.52
60
0.33
1.68
0.28
0.37
1.37
2.19
2.31 ± 0.17
2.69
Larvae
40
3.68
9.75
3.44
3.91
8.89
10.89
3.88 ± 0.22
14.82
50
3.04
8.07
2.61
3.43
7.091
10.05
3.87 ± 0.23
16.19
60
2.53
7.32
2.32
2.73
6.59
8.33
3.56 ± 0.22
6.94
Effects of MAs Enriched with N2 on Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne
Adult Stage
Treatment with nitrogen was more effective on S. paniceum than on L. serricorne adults. There was complete S. paniceum adult mortality after 72 h of a MA containing 97% and 98% N2. By contrast, L. serricorne adults needed 9 and 8 days of exposure to 97% and 98% N2, respectively, to reach 100% mortality. The differences between exposure periods were significant in both insect species during treatments with both concentrations of N2 except on S. paniceum adults between 48 and 72 h of exposure (Table 4).
Table 4
Mortality percentages (Mean ± SE) for adults of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres (MAs) containing two concentrations of N2 combined with several exposure periods at 25°C
Exposure
Period (h)
Stegobium paniceum
Exposure
Period (day)
Lasioderma serricorne
97% N2
98% N2
97% N2
98% N2
3
3.33 ± 1.67e
3.33 ± 1.67e
3
10.00 ± 0.00f
13.33 ± 3.33e
6
26.67 ± 7.26d
28.33 ± 7.28d
4
20.00 ± 5.77ef
46.67 ± 3.33d
12
41.67 ± 6.01c
50.00 ± 2.89c
5
30.00 ± 5.77de
53.33 ± 6.67cd
24
75.00 ± 2.89b
76.67 ± 3.33b
6
40.00 ± 5.77d
63.33 ± 6.67bc
48
93.33 ± 1.67a
98.33 ± 1.67a
7
60.00 ± 5.77c
76.67 ± 3.33b
72
100.00 ± 0.00a
100.00 ± 0.00a
8
83.33 ± 3.33b
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
–
–
9
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
F value
87.892
118.171
–
54.154
42.036
P value
0.000
0.000
–
0.000
0.000
Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other at P<0.01 (Duncan test)
Larval Stage
Larval mortality percentages for both insects increased significantly with increasing exposure times, at each concentration. All larvae had died after 10 days of exposure to 98% N2. At 97% N2, this period was extended to 12 and 13 days of exposure for S. paniceum and L. serricorne, respectively to reached 100% mortality (Table 5).
Table 5
Mortality percentages (Mean ± SE) for larvae of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres (MAs) containing two concentrations of N2 combined with several exposure periods at 25 °C
Exposure
Period (day)
Stegobium paniceum
Lasioderma serricorne
97% N2
98% N2
97% N2
98% N2
2
–
–
–
3.33 ± 3.33j
3
–
10.00 ± 10.00f
6.67 ± 3.33j
10.00 ± 5.77fj
4
3.33 ± 3.33f
23.33 ± 8.82f
10.00 ± 5.77fj
16.67 ± 8.82efj
5
23.33 ± 3.33e
46.67 ± 3.33e
13.33 ± 3.33fj
23.33 ± 6.67def
6
33.33 ± 3.33e
53.33 ± 8.82de
23.33 ± 3.33ef
33.33 ± 3.33cde
7
46.67 ± 3.33d
66.67 ± 3.33cd
30.00 ± 5.77de
36.67 ± 3.33cd
8
66.67 ± 3.33c
73.33 ± 3.33bc
43.33 ± 3.33cd
46.67 ± 3.33c
9
73.33 ± 3.33bc
90.00 ± 5.77ab
53.33 ± 6.67c
66.67 ± 8.82b
10
80.00 ± 5.77b
100.00 ± 0.00a
80.00 ± 5.77b
100.00 ± 0.00a
11
96.67 ± 3.33a
–
90.00 ± 5.77ab
–
12
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
96.67 ± 3.33a
–
13
–
–
100.00 ± 0.00a
–
F value
90.925
23.956
62.067
30.040
P value
0.000
0.000
0.000
0.000
Means followed by different letters are significantly different from each other at P<0.01 (Duncan test)
Comparative Lethal Times of S. paniceum and L. serricorne Exposed to N2 Concentrations
Table 6 shows the LT50 and LT95 values and their confidence limits for the two insect species treated with N2. Generally, both species of larvae were more tolerant than adults to N2 treatment. Additionally, both adults and larvae of S. paniceum were more sensitive to N2 treatments. The LT50 and LT95 values were 0.47 and 1.77 days, respectively, for S. paniceum adults exposed to 98% N2, and they were 4.64 and 9.33 days, respectively, for L. serricorne adults. The LT50 and LT95 values for S. paniceum larvae when treated with 98% N2 were 5.46 and 11.03 days, and those for L. serricorne larvae were 6.99 and 17.22 days, respectively.
Table 6
LT50 and LT95 values, together with their confidence limits, for adults and larvae of Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne exposed to modified atmospheres containing different concentrations of N2
Insect species
Stages
N2 (%)
LT50
(Days)
LT95
(Days)
Confidence limits (h)
Slope ± SE
Chi-square
X2
LT50
LT95
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
Stegobium paniceum
Adults
97
0.54
2.45
0.40
0.73
1.89
4.42
2.51 ± 0.17
10.95
98
0.47
1.77
0.42
0.52
1.48
2.19
2.86 ± 0.19
8.05
Larvae
97
6.97
12.34
6.72
7.21
11.60
13.32
6.62 ± 0.39
12.50
98
5.46
11.03
4.93
5.97
10.05
13.28
5.39 ± 0.34
17.08
Lasioderma serricorne
Adults
97
5.77
10.90
4.87
6.75
10.48
16.14
5.95 ± 0.41
35.37
98
4.64
9.33
3.66
5.46
9.11
15.70
5.43 ± 0.43
24.03
Larvae
97
7.52
14.29
6.53
8.52
13.41
18.33
5.89 ± 0.31
84.21
98
6.99
17.22
5.85
8.83
17.28
31.42
4.20 ± 0.29
57.95
Effects of MAs Enriched With CO2 on Product Quality
Weight Loss Percentage
Weight loss % of chamomile flowers and coriander seeds affected by the interaction between the CO2 treatments and storage periods as shown in Fig. 2. Weight loss (%) increased significantly by increasing storage period. The chamomile weight loss % of untreated group is 11.1 and 30.5% compared to 1.3 and 6.4% for modified atmosphere after 3 and 6 months of storage, respectively (Fig. 2a). While, the weight loss of coriander seeds for modified atmosphere and control treatment were 1.9 and 2.9% after 3 monthes and reached to 3.3 and 6.1% after 6 months of storage (Fig. 2b).
Fig. 2
Weight loss percentages of chamomile flowers and coriander seeds treated with 60% CO2 compared with untreated group during six months of storage. a chamomile flowers, b coriander seeds. Vertical bars represent ± SE of means (n = 5) **Significant at p < 0.01 of Duncan’s multiple range tests
The color, lightness (L) value, hue angle (h°) value, and chroma (C) value are parameters that are used to determine the quality of products after harvesting and during storage. Chamomile color was affected by the gas treatments (Fig. 3). The lightness value was 58.8 at harvest while, after 6 months of storage; it was 54.9 in the untreated group and 56.8 in the MA group. The lightness of chamomile flower in the untreated group became slightly darker (Fig. 3a). The chroma value increased during the storage period in both MA treatment and untreated groups (Fig. 3b). However, there was no significant difference of hue angle between the treatments at each storage period. The hue angle decreased significantly after 6 months of storage for both the treatments compared with harvest time (Fig. 3c). In general, the color was darker in the untreated group comparied with the MA group.
Fig. 3
The colour parameters of chamomile flowers treated with 60% CO2 compared with untreated group during six month of storage, a Lightness, b Chroma value, c hue angle. Vertical bars represent ± SE of means (n = 6) **Significant at p < 0.01 of Duncan’s multiple range tests
Coriander seeds’ color only slightly changed in the MA treatment group, and in the untreated, the lightness value significantly decreased within 6 months of storage (Fig. 4a). The chroma value was not significantly different after 6 months of storage in both treatments from harvest time (Fig. 4b). The differences in hue angle after 3 months of storage in both treatments were not significant; however, after 6 months of storage, the hue angle in the untreated group was higher than in the MA treatment (Fig. 4c).
Fig. 4
The colour parameters of coriander seeds treated with 60% CO2 compared with untreated group six month of storage. a Lightness, b Chroma value, c hue angle. Vertical bars represent ± SE of means (n = 5) **Significant at p < 0.01 of Duncan’s multiple range tests
Figure 5 illustrates the germination percentages of coriander seeds after a MA treatment of 60% CO2 after 0, 3, and 6 months of storage. The germination percentage was 87% at the beginning of storage, and after 3 months, it decreased to 71% in the MA treatment group and 59% in the untreated group. Increasing the storage period to 6 months led to more reduction in germination %. The highest germination % of the MA treatment group was 40% comparing to 22.7% in untreated group.
Fig. 5
Germination percentages of coriander seeds treated with 60% CO2 compared with untreated group during six month of storage. Vertical bars represent ± SE of means (n = 5) **Significant at p < 0.01 of Duncan’s multiple range tests
The essential oil percentage of chamomile decreased significantly with increasing storage time, as shown in Fig. 6a. The essential oil was reduced by 20% and 34% after 3 months of storage and 60% and 80% after 6 months of storage in the MA and untreated groups, respectively (Fig. 6a). Coriander’s essential oil was 0.27% at the time of storage, which decreased to 0.25% using MA treatment after 3 months of storage in comparison with 0.20% of the untreated. There was no significant difference in essential oil percentage between MA treatment (0.20%) and untreated (0.17%) after 6 months of storage (Fig. 6b).
Fig. 6
The essential oil percentages of chamomile flowers and coriander seeds treated with 60% CO2 compared with untreated group during six month of storage. a chamomile flowers, b coriander seeds. Vertical bars represent ± SE of means (n = 5). **Significant at p < 0.01 of Duncan’s multiple range tests
Table 7 summarizes the chemical composition percentage of chamomile flowers treated with MAs after two storage periods. In the examined oil, 17 compounds of sesquiterpenes were detected. The highest percentage of the identified compounds were α-bisabolol oxide A, (Z) tonghaosu, α‑bisabolol oxide B, and α‑bisabolone oxide. The proportions of the compounds in the treated chamomile were changed during the storage periods. The main affected compound was α‑bisabolol oxide A, which was 40.1% at harvest time, and increased in the control to 40.96%, and CO2 treatment to 45.36% after 6 months of storage. Additionally, α Bisaboleol oxide B, α Bisaboleol, α‑bisabolone oxide, and Bisaboleol oxide A increased in the CO2 treatment compared with the control after 6 months of storage. Furthermore, CO2 treatment resulted in the disappearance of artemisia ketone and estragole, which are considered undesirable compounds.
Table 7
Effect of elevated CO2 on essential oil components of chamomile flowers during six months of storage
Components
Molecular Formula
Retention time
(RT)
Components (%)
Zero time
6 month
Control
80% CO2
Limonene
C10H16
4.32
1.1
–
–
Artemisia ketone
C10H16O
8.94
0.63
0.82
–
Fenchone
C10H16O
12.63
0.59
–
–
Menthone
C10H18O
15.03
0.36
0.97
0
β‑farnesene
C15H24
16.73
2.63
1.58
1.38
Levomenthol
C10H20O
16.94
0.83
1.54
–
Carvone
C10H14O
22.95
0.32
0.66
–
Anethole
C10H12O
23.32
1.95
0.77
0.37
α‑bisabolol oxide B
C15H26O2
31.55
10.11
11.72
14.73
α cadinen
C15H24
31.88
1.99
6.38
2.31
α Bisabolol
C15H26O
33.04
1.50
1.27
1.78
α cadinol
C15H26 O
33.57
0.26
0.44
–
α Bisabolone oxide
C15H24O2
34.23
6.63
6.89
7.4
α‑bisabolol oxide A
C15H26O2
38.08
40.1
40.96
45.36
Chamazulene
C14H16
38.70
2.82
1.76
1.5
(Z)- tonghaosu
C13H12O
49.79
10.55
9.46
9.85
Other component
0.19
13.25
15.32
Table 8 identifies the components in the essential oil extracted from coriander seeds in the MA and untreated groups. The major volatile compounds in coriander seeds at zero time were linalool (54.86%), anethol (17.54%), carvone (4.12%), decanol (3.51%), geranyl acetate (2.39%), camphor (2.03%), and geraniol (1.37%). After 6 months of storage, all compounds were decreased in the treatment group with CO2 compared with the untreated group, except for carvone and anethol, which had increased.
Table 8
Effect of elevated CO2 on essential oil components of coriander seeds during six months of storage
Components
Molecular Formula
Zero time
6 month
RT
Essential oil (%)
RT
Essential oil (%)
Control
80% CO2
Linalool
C10H18O
5.9
54.86
13.35
47.71
39.2
Camphor
C10H16O
9.1
2.03
17.01
4.38
3.72
Decanol
C10H22O
9.5
3.51
17.9
2.31
0.62
Geranyl acetate
C12H20O2
11
2.39
20.7
2.59
2.07
Geraniol
C10H18O
13
1.37
22.0
1.26
1.00
Carvone
C10H14O
13.5
4.12
22.5
2.08
6.93
Anethol
C10H12O
14.9
17.54
23.3
29.19
35.63
Other component
14.18
10.48
10.83
Correlation Between Quality Parameters
Table 9 shows the relationship between the percentage of weight loss, color, and essential oil content of chamomile flowers. The oil percentage was negatively correlated with weight loss (−0.703*), highly negatively correlated with chroma value (−0.875**), and positively correlated with hue angle (0.834**). Weight loss was positively correlated with chroma value (0.980**) and negatively correlated with hue angle (-0.590*).
Table 9
Correlation of between quality parameters of chamomile flowers
Essential oil %
Weight loss%
Lightness value
Chroma value
Weight loss%
−0.703*
Lightness value
0.314
−0.131
Chroma value
−0.875**
0.890**
−0.320
Huge angle value
0.834**
−0.590*
0.128
−0.746**
Table 10 shows the relationship between the percentage of weight loss, color, germination, and oil content of coriander seeds. The germination percentage was highly negatively correlated with weight loss (−0.949**) and hue angle (−0.705**), and it was positively correlated with L* value (0.699**). The essential oil percentage was negatively correlated with chroma value (−0.742**). There was a negative correlation between weight loss and L* value (−0.817**), and there was a positive correlation with hue angle (0.751**).
Table 10
Correlation between quality parameters of coriander seeds
Germination %
Essential oil %
Weight loss%
Lightness value
Chroma value
Oil %
−0.508
Weight loss%
−0.949**
−0.457
Lightness value
0.699**
0.990
−0.817**
Chroma value
−0.399
−0.742**
0.399
−0.450
Huge angle value
−0.705**
−0.425
0.751**
−0.354
0.451
Discussion
In this study, complete mortality at all CO2 concentrations was achieved in 2 and 3 days of exposure of S. paniceum and L. serricorne adults, respectively. A total of 100% larval mortality of S. paniceum and L. serricorne was achieved after 6 and 8 days of exposure at 60% CO2, respectively. These findings are in agreement with those of Gunasekaran and Rajendran (2005), who found that the adults of the same insect species were all dead after 3 days when treated with 50% CO2, and the larvae needed higher concentrations of CO2 of more than 50%, to reach 100% mortality. The mode of action of MAs on insects is related to the toxic effects of carbon dioxide on the nervous system and increased acidity of the insect hemolymph, which leads to failure of membrane permeability. In addition to a decrease in metabolic rate, adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and energy charge, as well as the negative effect of carbon dioxide on the activity of many enzymes, especially Respiratory enzymes, which ultimately leads to the rapid death of the insect (Mitcham et al. 2006; Hashem et al. 2018).
In our study, L. serricorne adults were more tolerant than S. paniceum adults. Only two investigations have compared the effect of CO2 on the S. paniceum and L. serricorne. Gunasekaran and Rajendran (2005) used varying concentrations of CO2, from 20% to 90%, against all developmental stages. They reported that the life stages of S. paniceum were more susceptible to CO2 treatments than those of L. serricorne. Hashem (2000) exposed pupal and adult stages of both insect species to four concentrations of CO2 (20%, 30%, 40%, and 60%) and recorded the similarity of the response of the adult stage to CO2 treatments.
In N2 treatments, the adult mortality of S. paniceum reached 100% after 3 days when exposed to 97% or 98% N2. Which may be due to the sensitivity of S. Paniceum adults to low concentrations of oxygen, so the spiracles of the insect open, loses water, and desiccation occurs, which is the main factor in rapid death.
However, the larvae exhibited 100% mortality after 12 and 10 days of exposure to the same concentrations, respectively. These results are consistent with those of Berzolla et al. (2015), who exposed S. paniceum larvae to 97% N2 at 30 °C and 35% RH. They found that the larval mortality was 80% after 7 days of exposure and suggested extending the treatment period for at least another week. Additionally, L. serricorne adults needed longer exposure periods to reach 100% mortality. The complete mortality of L. serricorne adults was recorded after 8 days of exposure to 98% N2 and 9 days of exposure to 97% N2. Additionally, their larvae required 13 and 10 days of exposure at 97% N2 and 98% N2. These results are consistent with those of Imai and Fukazawa (2012). They found that L. serricorne larvae were the most tolerant stage overall, which needed 7 days to reach 100% mortality when treated with 99% N2. Hashem et al. (2014c) found that 98% N2 caused 100% mortality of Ephestia cautella 5th instar larvae after 6 days of exposure. Kharel et al. (2019) showed that 15 days of hypoxia treatments (98% N2) was required to kill adult Tribolium castaneum. Hashem et al. (2021) studied the effect of 98% nitrogen on adult and larval stages of Oryzaephilus surinamensis and found that 3 and 6 days of exposure were enough to reach 100% mortality for adults and larvae, respectively. Ahmed et al. (2017) showed that 98% N2 treatment caused 100% mortality of Sitophilusoryzae larvae after 8 days of exposure. Hashem and Ahmed (2017) found that adults of Systole sp. required 25 days of exposure to 98% N2. Cui et al. (2017) showed that 4th instar larvae of Callosobruchus maculatus reached complete mortality under hypoxia (98% N2) after 24 days of exposure. The time required to kill insects under hypoxia treatments was mostly dependent on oxygen concentration and insect species.
The adults in both species tended to be more susceptible to MAs, either CO2 or N2 treatments, than the larvae. These results are in agreement with those of Gunasekaran and Rajendran (2005), who reported that larvae were more tolerant to CO2 concentrations than adults in S. paniceum and L. serricorne. Berzolla et al. (2015) found that S. paniceum larvae were the most tolerant to MAs enriched with N2, whereas the adults were more susceptible. There are several studies indicating that the larvae of different stored product insects, such as S. granarius (L.) and S. oryzae, are more tolerant to CO2 than other life stages (Lindgren and Vincent 1970; Annis 1987; Navarro and Jay 1987; AliNiazee 1971).
According to the LT50 and LT95 values, the N2 treatment required a longer exposure period than CO2 treatments for adults and larvae of both insect species. Although long exposure periods may be necessary to achieve 100% mortality, this is more than compensated for by the increased health and safety benefits inherent in the use of low-oxygen atmospheres. Our findings are in agreement with Hashem et al. (2014c) who observed that 60% CO2 was more effective than 98% N2 against 5th instar larvae of E. cautella. Furthermore, Hashem et al. (2018) found that 60% CO2 was more toxic than 98% N2 in the last instar larvae of rice moth, Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton), and Hashem et al. (2021) observed that 50% CO2 was more effective than 98% N2 against larvae of O. surinamensis. For effective control with N2 treatments, the O2 level should be less than 3%, and preferably less than 1% if a rapid kill is required (Berzolla et al. 2015). Decreasing the level of oxygen to less than 1% may cause the insect to close their spiracles and increase the lethal exposure period (Sujeetha et al. 2015).
Color change, weight loss, decrease of essential oil and volatile compounds are the most important post-harvest problems in medicinal plants during storage (Cristiane et al. 2018). Our results indicated that the weight loss in the chamomile flowers and coriander seeds increased with increasing the storage period. The weight loss percentage in chamomile flower and coriander seeds reached 30.5% and 6.1% after 6 months of storage under normal conditions. These results agree with those of Chaudhari et al. (2021), who reported a weight loss in coriander seeds of 1.74% after 2 months of storage in the laboratory (30 °C ± 2 °C), which increased to 54.62% after 12 month of storage. Hashem et al. (2014a) reported a loss of 13.4% in coriander after 6 months of storage. Furthermore, Kant et al. (2013) indicated a postharvest storage loss of 49.58% in coriander. An increase in weight loss of seeds during the storage period may be due to evapouration (Shehata et al. 2009) and insect infestation (Memon et al. 2017). Also, Meena et al. (2014) recorded 7.46% loss in maize by Corcyra cephalonica infestation after 2 months of storage. Kant et al. (2013) recorded that an insect infestation in stored coriander seeds caused a weight loss of 40–50%. In our study, the treatment of stored chamomile and coriander seeds with a MA of 60% CO2 reduced the weight losses of the plant products. These weight losses were less than 6.4% and 3.3% for chamomile and coriander, respectively, during 6 months of storage. Our results are related to findings that were reported by Alvindia et al. (2006), who indicated that weight loss was minimized in carbon dioxide-enriched storage conditions. Shivaraja et al. (2012) reported that the weight loss in pigeon pea seeds treated with 10% CO2 for 45 days was less than 9.90% compared with 45% in the control. Thanushree et al. (2019) found that the weight loss in coriander seeds stored in hermetic bags was 0.07% after 6 months compared with 0.46% when stored in normal conditions (gunny bags) during the same period.
Retaining color is an important quality parameter for aromatic plants, directly influencing consumer acceptability. The lightness (L*), hue angle (h°), and chroma (C) are parameters used to determine the quality of plant products. The variable L* represents the brightness coefficient on a scale ranging from 0 to 100, where 0 represents black and 100 is white. The hue angle of the stored product indicated the color difference, whereas the chroma (C*) indicated the purity or saturation of a color plant (Fante et al. 2014). Our results showed that lightness decreased with the increase in the storage period in chamomile flower and coriander seeds, whereas chroma was increased in both plants. These results were due to insect infestation, which resulted in many changes of apperaence and caused progressive darking of stored products (Smith et al. 1971). The hue angle (h°) change was statistically decreased in chamomile flowers at the end of storage (6 months) compared with the initial harvest. These results were relatively in harmony with those of Anandakumar et al. (2016), who recorded that the L* value of coriander seeds decreased with the increase in the storage period. Furthemore, Fernandes et al. (2020) reported that the a* and b* of chestnuts samples were significantly reduced along with storage. Harbourne et al. (2009) found that extracts prepared from fresh chamomile flowers were lighter than those made from the stored samples. Additionally, chamomile extracts made from fresh flowers had the highest hue angle than those from stored chamomile. In the present study, after 6 months of storage, both chamomile and coriander seeds stored under a MA (60% CO2) had higher L* values than those stored in a standard atmosphere. Additionally, the hue angle was lower in the MA storage condition than in the normal condition. As mentioned above, chroma measures the purity or saturation of the color; therefore, a high chroma would be desirable in an extract. The chroma of the coriander seeds under MA treatment was not significantly decreased from the control but was significantly decreased in chamomile flowers. Few studies have determined the effect of a MA on the color of stored products. Thanushree et al. (2019) found that the lightness (L*) of coriander seeds stored under hermetic storage conditions did not change compared mainly with control.. Furthermore, Jonfia et al. (2010) reported that maize samples stored in super grain hermetic bags had reduced the color changes compared with maize stored in jute bags. The greater color changes in the stored coriander seeds in the normal conditions were due to the increase of insect infestation that had altered the appearance of stored commodities (Rajab 2016a). According to these results, the delay in the color change under MA storage conditions was probably due to a decrease in the metabolic processes responsible for pigments degradation (Fante et al. 2014).
The germination percentage of coriander seeds was significantly affected and decreased by increasing the storage period. These results agreed with those of Shekar et al. (2018), who found that the germination percentage of maize grains decreased from 95%, at time zero, to 78%, after 6 months of storage. Furthermore, the germination percentage of groundnut declined from 93.00% at the initial stage to 44.67% by the end of the storage period (Vasudevan et al. 2014). Similar results were observed by Raghupathi et al. (2021) on green gram seeds. The decrease in germination percentage during storage periods was due to the increased weight loss in the seeds. There was a negative correlation (−0.949**) between weight loss percentage and germination percentage in our study. The lower germination percentage during storage may be due to a more severe pest infestation, which may have damaged seed embryos and caused weight loss of maize seeds (Shekar et al. 2018).
In our results, the MA (60% CO2) treatment groups had the highest germination percentages of coriander. Similar results were reported by Shehata et al. (2009) on cowpea seeds stored up to 6 months under MAs (60% and 80% CO2) and normal conditions. Many researchers have reported that MAs rich in CO2 maintain seed quality with a high germination percentage of redgram seeds (Padmasri et al. 2017) chickpea seeds (Shinde and Hunje 2019) and maize seeds (Reddy et al. 2018),. The high germination percentage of coriander seeds treated with CO2 was due to the reducing effect of MAs on insect infestations and mold attacks during storage, which leads to less seed damage (Rathi et al. 2000).
Our results indicate that the essential oil content of chamomile flower and coriander seeds decreased significantly by increasing the storage time of the plant products. These observations are similar to those of Rajab (2016a), who observed a decrease in volatile oil content of coriander seeds from 1.46% to 0.46% during a 24 month storage period. Additionally, the same author found that the volatile oil content of aniseseeds was 4.53% at time zero, which decreased gradually and was 3.11% after 2 years of storage (Rajab 2016b). The chemical compositions of aromatic seeds are affected by the ecological conditions and storage length (Rebey et al. 2019).
Our data on chamomile and coriander oils demonstrate an increase in some oil components and a decrease in others, during storage. The same observations were recorded by Njoroge et al. (1996) on Citrus junos, Cesare et al. (2003) on basil oil, and Wahba et al. (2020) on coriander. The change in chemical contents for stored seeds is due to oxidative changes in the presence of temperature, light, air, and oxygen during storage. The degree of change in these conditions led to chemical reactions with less stable compounds and effects on enzyme activity and metabolism (Burbott and Loomis 1969). Our results indicated that the storage under a MA better maintained the essential oil content of chamomile and coriander than the control treatment. This is supported by Thanushree et al. (2019), who reported that the volatile oil content of coriander seeds stored in hermetic bags was not decreased compared with the initial stored period. Furthermore, Mele et al. (2017) recorded that the MA treatments retained a higher essential oil yield in Ligularia fischeri. Additionally, Karaman et al. (2014) found the physicochemical characteristic of the oil change in the storage period can be maintained by MA packaging film. The decrease in the essential oil content and change in their compositions during normal storage conditions can be due to evaporation, oxidation, and other unwanted changes in essential oil constituents (Mockute et al. 2005). The essential oil content and its composition are significantly affected by O2 concentration (Abbas et al. 2021).
Conclusions
A MA with CO2 or N2 treatments can be a good alternative to the use of chemical treatments and conventional harmful fumigants to control insect pests infesting aromatic plants during their storage. A MA with an increased CO2 condition maintains the quality of chamomile flower and coriander seeds by increasing the viability of seeds, reducing weight loss, increasing the essential oil percentages, and stabilizing the main qualitative components of the essential oil.
Acknowledgements
The current research is a part of the supported project number 1221, which aims to examine insect pests and their loss on different medicinal plants at two sites in Egypt. The authors are grateful to the Science and Technology Development Fund (STDF) organization for funding this project.
Conflict of interest
M.Y. Hashem, S.S. Ahmed, S.S.H. Khalil, A.B. El-Attar and K.F. Abdelgawad All the authors declare that they have no involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest.
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Application of Modified Atmospheres to Control Stegobium paniceum and Lasioderma serricorne Infestation of Stored Chamomile and Coriander and Its Effect On Product Quality
Authors
Mohamed Y. Hashem
Sayeda S. Ahmed
Shimaa S. H. Khalil
Asmaa B. El-Attar
Karima F. Abdelgawad
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