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2022 | Book

Assessing, Mapping and Modelling of Mangrove Ecosystem Services in the Asia-Pacific Region

Editors: Rajarshi Dasgupta, Shizuka Hashimoto, Osamu Saito

Publisher: Springer Nature Singapore

Book Series : Science for Sustainable Societies

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About this book

This book presents the state-of-the-art of knowledge in assessing, mapping, and modeling mangrove ecosystem services and outlines various scientific tools and techniques, including environmental scenario-building, spatial and econometric modelling to understand the fluctuations and future availability of mangrove ecosystem services. The book also highlights the current gaps and measures in policy planning and outlines the avenues for capacity building. Through case studies and thematic reviews, the book plans to cater to a wide range of audiences, including students, researchers, and decision-makers at various levels involved in mangrove conservation and land use optimization for sustainable and resilient development.

This book is particularly useful to researchers and students in the field of landscape and spatial ecology, coastal zone management, ecosystem services, and resilience planning. It is also a must-read for policymakers, conservators, coastal zone managers, foresters, and general administrators in understanding the current and future roles of mangroves in ecosystem-based adaptation through informed decision-making.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter
Chapter 1. Envisioning the Future of Mangroves Through Mapping and Modeling of Mangrove Ecosystem Services
Abstract
Mangrove forests are among the most diverse tropical forests, and they provide critical ecosystem services indispensable for human well-being. These ecosystem services play a critical role in climate change mitigation and adaptation, sustainable development, and disaster risk reduction in vulnerable tropical coastal areas. Mangroves are particularly important for Asia, given the high population density in coastal areas, the rising threat of natural hazards, and climate-induced sea-level rise. Despite the growing importance of mangroves in international policy documents, mangrove cover continues to decline across the world, particularly in Asia, due to a variety of natural and anthropogenic drivers. Against this backdrop, this introductory chapter outlines the current state of mangroves in Asia, together with the influential drivers behind their degradation as well as efforts for restoration in recent years. Given the high uncertainty surrounding the future existence of mangroves in Asia and the delivery of the vital ecosystem services, the chapter highlights the need for assessing, mapping, and modeling mangrove ecosystem services and scenario-based quantification of such services across space and time. In particular, the chapter calls for assessing the future of mangroves funder plausible alternative development pathways and identifies their importance in evidence-led policy planning. This chapter further outlines the book’s subsequent chapters and expectations.
Rajarshi Dasgupta, Shizuka Hashimoto, Osamu Saito

Trend Analysis, Scenario Building and Identification of the Influential Drivers of Change

Frontmatter
Chapter 2. Monitoring Spatial and Temporal Distribution, Pattern, and Trend Prediction of Coastal Mangroves in Pakistan Using Geospatial Techniques
Abstract
This chapter focused on monitoring spatial and temporal distribution patterns and trend prediction of mangroves along the coastal belt of Pakistan using geographic information system (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) approaches. Mangroves are considered significant for the ecology, environment, and livelihood of coastal communities and have high biological productivity. In Pakistan, mangroves are reported from the coastal belt of Baluchistan and Sindh provinces. Therefore, this chapter describes the spatial and temporal distribution pattern and trend prediction of coastal mangroves in Pakistan. To monitor spatial patterns of change in mangroves, Landsat temporal satellite data were used. The temporal Landsat data for the years 2020, 2011, 2001, 1991, and 1986 were acquired, and the NDVI-based classification technique was applied to demarcate mangroves. Besides, supervised classification with a maximum likelihood algorithm was used to identify the spatiotemporal patterns of mangroves. The analysis revealed a gradual increase of mangroves, i.e., from 48,331 ha in 1986, which increased to 55,621 ha in 1991, and further expanded to 79,254 ha (2001), 107,443 ha (2011), and 143,930 ha in 2020. Parallel to this, microlevel analysis at Indus Delta, Sandspit, Sonmiani, and Kalmat Khor was also carried out to validate the macrolevel results. It was found from the analysis that the gradual increase in area under mangroves is attributed to conservation strategies, sustainable regeneration, and initiation of afforestation projects by various departments, authorities, and organizations.
Muhammad Hussain, Atta-ur Rahman
Chapter 3. Assessment of Mangrove Colonization of Aquaculture Ponds Through Satellite Image Analysis: Implications for Mangrove Management
Abstract
Mangroves are highly productive forest ecosystems recognized for several ecosystem services like carbon sequestration and coastal protection that can help in climate change adaptation and mitigation. Globally, mangrove forests have decreased and have become fragmented, especially in Southeast Asia where conversion to aquaculture ponds (AP) was the major driver of loss. When disturbed, mangroves can naturally recolonize their habitat. However, documentation and assessment of natural mangrove recolonization in former AP are largely unreported. Hence, in this study, we developed a methodology that detected and mapped mangroves in AP in Panguil Bay, southern Philippines. Using Landsat data and Google Earth Engine (GEE), we analyzed spatiotemporal mangrove distribution and extent in AP from 1993 to 2020. In general, the increase in mangrove cover was directly correlated to the decrease in AP. However, different rates and patterns of mangrove colonization in different periods were observed. Mangrove-recolonized ponds (MRPs) were ca. 25% (10.24 km2) of the total mangrove area (40.20 km2) in 2020. To our knowledge, this study showed the first mapping of mangrove recolonization in AP in the Philippines. The developed methodology used open access Landsat data on a cloud-based processing platform, which can be replicated in other regions for large-scale mangrove scenario planning and policy-making. Upscaling the developed methodology can provide national-level MRP information that can be used for evaluating the success of mangrove rehabilitation programs.
Kriselda Anna delos Santos, Ram Avtar, Severino Salmo III, Masahiko Fujii
Chapter 4. Ecosystem Services and Their Future Scenarios Centering on Mangrove Ecosystem in Ishigaki Island, Japan
Abstract
This chapter contributes to a comprehensive understanding of the island socio-ecological system by a synthesis of the state and trend of, and the drivers of changes in ecosystems and their services, focusing on mangroves in Ishigaki Island. The current extent of mangroves on the Island is limited to small patches along a few river estuaries, which nevertheless provide critical habitat for several threatened species as well as important ecosystem services that mediate the Island’s terrestrial and coastal systems. It however is subject to gradual change due to changing hydrological and sedimentation patterns affected by land uses within the upstream watershed. The chapter went further to identify plausible future island socio-ecological scenarios with concrete narratives and key metrics, building on downscaling existing scenarios on one hand, and on the other hand regional policies and periodic statistics over the past two decades. The scenarios are fourfold: (A) nature-sensitive integrated tourism and agriculture; (B) nature-centered tourism; (C) integrated tourism and agriculture; and (D) resort island scenarios. We also identified ten key quantitative metrics to gauge the four scenarios: (1) tourist number, (2) nature tour destination area, (3) residential area, (4) land development area, (5) coastal development, (6) dry and paddy field area, (7) grassland area, (8) conservation agriculture area, (9) protected area, and (10) restored area. The synthesis of the Island’s socio-ecological system and the plausible future scenarios articulated in this chapter provide a robust basis for modeling future island ecosystems and their services centering on mangroves in Ishigaki Island. Furthermore, the chapter demonstrates methodological advancement in downscaling existing high-level scenarios with the aid of regional periodic statistics and a comprehensive review of regional policy documents.
Yasuo Takahashi, Shizuka Hashimoto, Huang Wanhui
Chapter 5. A Participatory Stakeholder-Based Approach to Assess the Drivers and Challenges of Mangrove Loss in Kochi, Kerala, India
Abstract
Mangrove forests provide critical services around the globe to both human populations and the ecosystems they occupy. Mangroves have been heavily impacted by degradation and deforestation, with 20–35% of global mangrove extent lost over the last 50 years. Due to inadequate representation of the value of the mangroves in decision-making, mangroves have undergone a rapid decline in the last few decades. On the west coast of India, Kerala has thick mangrove vegetation along its coastline, with Kochi having the most diverse mangrove species in the state. Kochi is a fast-growing major industrial area in the state of Kerala. An extensive field survey was carried out followed by an extensive participatory stakeholder survey to understand various drivers of mangrove biodiversity loss in Kochi. This study provides some greater insights into the increasing pressure on mangroves of Kochi due to diverse direct and indirect drivers. This study is one of the few initial attempts to understand the urgent need of protecting the existing mangroves and developing place-specific policy interventions mainstreaming the drivers and strengthening participatory approaches for the preservation of the remaining dense and intact mangroves of Kochi. This primary attempt should be used as a baseline to understand the trends of loss, project the scenarios, and accordingly plan and implement interactive governance approaches to restore and halt the degradation of these valuable bioresources for aligning the efforts to achieve targets of the UN decade on restoration and post 2020 global biodiversity targets for reducing disaster risks and enhancing climate adaptations.
Saniya Joshy, Jayshree Shukla, Shalini Dhyani
Chapter 6. Understanding Potential Drivers of Mangrove Loss in Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi Delta, India, to Enhance Effective Restoration and Conservation Efforts
Abstract
Mangrove ecosystems have attracted immense attention because of their unique ability to withstand and protect the fragile coastal ecosystem by supplying diverse ecosystem services in the warming world. To appropriately understand and predict the plausible alternative futures of mangroves in India, it is pertinent to understand the potential drivers of mangrove loss. The chapter focuses on the second most diverse mangrove patches in India Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi delta in Odisha. Changes in the local mangroves can help to understand the magnitude, trends, drivers, and scenarios of long-term changes. The present chapter provides a broader overview of direct and indirect drivers that have substantially affected the long-term protection, functioning, and restoration of mangroves. The chapter presents a critical review to understand key knowledge gaps and constraining conditions that have affected the conservation of mangroves in the region. An exponential increase in population, immigration, aquaculture ponds, infrastructure development, and poor socioeconomic condition of locals followed by increasing frequency of cyclones are key drivers. Improving interactive governance approaches and opportunities for locals in evidence-based decision-making, including their livelihood concerns, can improve conservation efforts. Sensitive coastal zone in the region should be declared as a “no-go zone” for large-scale industrial and developmental projects that significantly affect coastal and marine ecosystems. The chapter highlights the implications of mangrove vulnerability and prospects for resilience for Bhitarkanika and Mahanadi Delta and argues ensuring the unrestricted flow of ecosystem services from the coupled socio-ecological system that can be ensured by a comprehensive understanding of the bidirectional linkages of ecosystems and arrangement of anthropogenic drivers of loss.
Shalini Dhyani, Muktipada Panda, Rakesh Kadaverugu, Rajarshi Dasgupta, Pankaj Kumar, Sunidhi Singh, Jayshree Shukla, Paras Pujari, Shizuka Hashimoto

Assessing Mangrove Ecosystem Services

Frontmatter
Chapter 7. Advancement in Measurement and Estimation Methods of Blue Carbon Studies
Abstract
Blue carbon and its storage for a long time in the coasts and estuaries are one of the most important natural ways to combat and mitigate ongoing threats of climate change. Hence, measurement and estimation of blue carbon storage and burial became extremely crucial for researchers throughout the globe. In the last few decades, many cut-of-the-age technologies have been developed for the estimation of blue carbon study. Mangroves, seagrasses, and salt marshes ecosystems have been unanimously accepted as blue carbon ecosystems. The principal compartments of blue carbon storage are aboveground biomass, belowground biomass, nonliving detritus, and sediment. Both destructive and nondestructive approaches have been considered as the conventional method of measuring and estimating blue carbon. Stable isotope and radioisotope techniques have widely been used in the study of blue carbon burial rates and source identification. Recent nondestructive methods have also been developed like remote sensing techniques. This chapter focuses on a comprehensive review of the conventional methods of blue carbon measurement and estimation along with recent advancements. This chapter also dealt with the future direction of the blue carbon measurement and estimation methodology.
Anirban Akhand, Abhra Chanda, Rajarshi Dasgupta
Chapter 8. Change Mapping of Aboveground Carbon Stocks and Ecosystem Services in the Mangrove Forest of Andaman Islands: Implications for Conservation and Ecosystem-Based Adaptation
Abstract
Mangroves are globally recognized for their ecological, social, economic, and cultural significance. In recent years, data and assessment on carbon storage in tropical forests including mangroves have significantly improved. However, site-specific evidence as in the case of tropical islands and low-lying coastal zones where climate change effects are likely to be severe is lacking. This paper evaluates the change of carbon stock and its spatial variation in the mangrove ecosystems of Andaman Islands in India. The study highlights the mangrove cover change (2005–2019) and systematically reviews the variation in aboveground biomass of mangrove ecosystems in Southeast Asia. Our results showed that the mangrove cover significantly decreased from 2005 to 2010, largely due to the Indian Ocean tsunami and geomorphic changes associated with tectonic processes in the islands. The dense mangrove cover had declined by 92 km2 between the years of 2005 and 2010 and then increased by 37 km2 between the years of 2010 and 2019. The average aboveground vegetation carbon stock of mangroves was found to be 86.41Mean ± 59.82SD t C ha−1. In regard to ecosystem service, we estimated that the monetary value of AGB carbon stock is US$424.62 million. Our map delivers a valued tool for assessing carbon stocks and highlighting priority areas for conservation, EbA Ecosystem Based Adaptation, and restoration interventions. The present study also addresses the knowledge gap present in the ecosystem service dimensions of a major mangrove system in India, which can contribute to reliable and informed decision-making in mangrove management.
Anukul Nath, Chitiz Joshi, Nehru Prabakaran, Sonali Ghosh, Gautam Talukdar
Chapter 9. Depicting Mangrove’s Potential as Blue Carbon Champion in Indonesia
Abstract
In June 2019, during the UNFCCC meeting, Indonesia pledged to reduce carbon emissions by adopting “blue carbon.” The term refers to the role of the vegetated coastal ecosystem (mangroves, seagrass, brackish, and phytoplankton ecosystems) to mitigate anthropogenic CO2 emission. Indonesia has the most extensive coverage of mangroves in the world. Its mangrove forest contains 3.14 billion metric tons of carbon. However, continuing and alarming destruction has consequences in obstructing the current carbon emission reduction and climate change mitigation effort. News media articles on ecosystem services are considered critical information for public opinion building processes because media provides and creates images and supports the initiative. This chapter aims to seek the answer to the following research questions: how is blue carbon covered in Indonesia’s leading online media outlet and what does this coverage imply for the public opinion building process regarding the blue carbon initiative? In the past decade, news coverage on mangrove ecosystem services was successfully conveying tsunami risk reduction messages. This study will investigate online news media coverage to analyze mangrove’s existing media representation as a “blue carbon champion” using qualitative content analysis. Online media coverage in the Indonesian language was collected from June 2019 to February 2021 under the term “karbon biru” (English: blue carbon) and “blue carbon.” The sample consists of articles from national online media outlets which scraped from Google News. The result is likely to show how news coverage on “blue carbon” represents a potential risk for the societal acceptance of blue carbon initiatives. As society is increasingly reliant upon the media to inform them, public opinion building processes regarding mangroves’ potential for a “blue carbon champion” required a novel discourse. Heavy coverage on mangroves as a carbon sink and frequent scientific jargon usage associated with blue carbon need to be reshaped.
Syarifah Aini Dalimunthe, Intan Adhi Perdana Putri, Ari Purwanto Sarwo Prasojo
Chapter 10. Eco-Engineering and Mangrove Restoration Methods to Stabilize Earthen Embankments and Establishing Bio-Shield Against Natural Disasters: A Case Study from Sundarban Ramsar Wetland, India
Abstract
Natural disasters such as cyclones, typhoons, storm surges, or tsunami are responsible for the destruction of land, livelihood and displacement of local populace. Sundarbans, the world’s largest contiguous mangrove forest, located in the Ganges-Meghna-Brahmaputra delta, is the only barrier against these disasters. Eco-engineering with salt-loving mangrove plants can successfully establish a bio-shield against natural disasters and stabilize the earthen banks. It can also restore the four principles of ecosystem services—provisioning services, regulating services, supporting services, and cultural services. Restoration techniques promote the establishment of wave attenuating, rapidly growing, salinity- and flooding-tolerant Avicennia marina near the low tide level. The second layer of plantation can be established with true mangrove family (Rhizophoraceae) members Bruguiera spp. and Ceriops spp. that can consolidate sediment, survive flooding, and are salinity-tolerant. The third layer can constitute of stilt root possessing Rhizophora mucronata that has a potential to reduce flooding impact and can stabilize a comparatively larger volume of sediment due to extensive root structure. The fourth and final plantation layer can be established with resilient tree species with the potential to reduce wind force such as Sonneretia sp. and Excoecaria sp. near to the high tide level. Restoration must not be done with exotic or invasive species to minimize ecosystem damage. Community participation must be ensured to successfully establish mangrove bio-shield at Indian Sundarbans and reduce grazing pressure post plantation phase. A case study has revealed a successful restoration attempt at Satjelia Island of Indian Sundarbans with protection service during recent cyclones.
Aliya Naz, Abhiroop Chowdhury
Chapter 11. Ecosystem Services of Urban Fringe Mangrove Forests: The Case of Tamsui River Estuary Mangrove Forest, Taiwan
Abstract
Tamsui River Estuary mangrove forest is located adjacent to the Taipei Metropolitan area, where the river meets the ocean. The Greater Taipei area is Taiwan’s largest metropolitan area with a population of over 7 million. Following successive designations of several mangrove forest reserves in the 1980s, the mangrove area of Tamsui River Estuary mangrove forest now exceeds 108 ha, making it Taiwan’s one of the most important sites for environmental education and research. Mangroves are generally considered to perform critical ecological functions, such as water purification and tidal impact reduction. However, only a few studies have assessed the ecosystem services of mangroves at the Tamsui River Estuary. This study highlighted the mangroves and their relationship to the fringes of Taipei City to assess the ecosystem services provided by the catchment area. The study found that the mangroves have transformed from a wasteland into a mangrove ecosystem, which was familiar to, recognized and protected by citizens and institutions and providing additional cultural services to people. Mangroves are important patches that provide downstream ecosystem services affected by upstream land use changes within the watershed. The government undertook intensive regulatory measures to preserve the environmental quality of the watershed and improve ecosystem services. In this sense, urban mangroves are deeply influenced by urban resilience goals with judgments from multiple perspectives.
Ming-Kuang Chung, Wan-Hui Huang, Li-Pei Peng, Shizuka Hashimoto
Chapter 12. Diversity and Structural Characteristics of Mangrove Forests in the Southern District of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines
Abstract
Mangrove ecosystem is a highly dynamic environment due to the tidal and seasonal variations of its physical and chemical properties, influencing its diversity and community structure. Six mangrove ecosystems on the southern coast of Oriental Mindoro, Philippines, were studied, and their species composition, diversity, and structural community were determined using various diversity indices and vegetation analyses. Twenty-four mangrove species were recorded which was higher compared to the previous assessment conducted in 2014. The highest species richness was recorded in Roxas (16 species), while the lowest was recorded in Bongabong (nine species). Common mangrove species in the study sites are Avicennia rumphiana, Excoecaria agallocha, Rhizophora apiculata, Rhizophora mucronata, and Sonneratia alba. Interestingly, six species are considered new records in the southern district including Acanthus ebracteatus, Acanthus volubilis, Acrostichum aureum, Acrostichum speciosum, Heritiera littoralis, and Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea. Species diversity varied per mangrove site, with Roxas having the highest diversity and Gloria having the lowest. In terms of evenness, mangrove site in Bongabong has highly proportional species abundance distribution. The most diverse mangrove ecotypes can be found in the middle and landward zones, where growth conditions are favorable. The abundance of regenerating and small stem-sized mangrove trees classified the mangrove forest communities in Gloria, Bongabong, Roxas, and Bulalacao as early growth, whereas the mangrove community structures in Bansud and Mansalay were classified as old growth, characterized by large boles and tall mangrove trees. Occasional mangrove tree cutting and fishpond activities are both regarded as potential threats to the mangrove areas. Local environmental authorities should design their own mangrove conservation framework to guide them conserve and manage their local mangroves.
A. F. M. Raganas, D. B. Magcale-Macandog
Chapter 13. Cultural Ecosystem Services of Mangroves: A Review of Models and Methods
Abstract
Mangrove forests are important for sustaining and enhancing ecosystem services that are beneficial for both local and regional communities as well as the global environment. Regardless of the significant research carried out on mangroves and the valuation of ecosystem services, the literature demonstrates a deficit in the valuation of cultural services. Most published studies focus on aspects of cultural services based on the ability to measure values with market prices, whereas the importance of cultural services in the lives of local communities gets sidelined. In this chapter, we have studied the interlinkages of cultural services provided by mangroves and the indigenous population and how the dimensions of the well-being of local communities are associated with their cultural practices. The chapter sheds light on the literature uncertainties and the importance of studying attitudes and perceptions of local people toward the cultural ecosystem services for forest management and policy planning processes.
Kanika Bimrah, Rajarshi Dasgupta, Izuru Saizen
Chapter 14. Capacity-Building Around Indigenous and Local Knowledge (ILK) Systems for Effective Climate Adaptation in the Low-Lying Coasts and Small Islands
Abstract
Indigenous (or traditional) and local knowledge (ILK) systems are increasingly recognized as a potential solution for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction. Most ILK systems incorporate or are built around several nature-based approaches in the low-lying coasts such as social and livelihood systems relying on mangrove ecosystems. However, ILK systems have their limits to adaptation and hence are not fully capable of overcoming the magnitude of threats posed by climate change or extreme hazards to the vulnerable communities living in in low-lying coasts or Small Islands Developing States (SIDS). The potential of ILK needs reinforcement by technological innovations as well as adequate investments to reengineer solutions. For that, the role of capacity building is important to enabling community or indigenous groups to systematically identify and document ILK practices, assess vulnerabilities of ILK, co-develop scientifically robust solutions based on ILK, and institute mechanisms for the promotion and upscaling of solutions. This chapter proposes a comprehensive approach for building local capacities around ILK for climate change adaptation and resilience building against future risks. The chapter stresses a sustainable approach to capacity building that could be retained, improved, and continued over time.
Binaya Raj Shivakoti, Nagisa Shiiba, Peter King
Chapter 15. Ecosystem Services and Well-Being in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh: A Multiple Evidence Base Trajectory
Abstract
The chapter attempts to categorise the ecosystem services (ES) and their multiple values as well as scrutinise the well-being of human and nature interfaces in the Sundarbans—the largest single-tract contiguous mangrove forest in the world. It also examines the factors negatively and positively affecting the ecosystem’s balance and thus the well-being of the forest and its people. The chapter demonstrates that both humans and nature are dependent on each other and form a human-nature sociality in the ecosystem through which they coexist; therefore the appropriation of nature (conservation, restoration, sustainable uses, access and benefit sharing) instead of expropriation (anthropogenic pressures) promotes virtuous cycle in the ecosystem and harmonious relations between human and nature. The chapter adopts multiple evidence base (MEB) approach, comprising (a) participatory observations and focus group discussions, (b) public participation geographic information system (PPGIS), (c) survey and (d) corroborative scientific evidence. The study particularly draws on the insights of forest people who pursue their livelihoods in the Sundarbans as traditional resource users like wood collectors (Bawalis), fishermen (Jele), honey and wax collectors (Mouals) and crab collectors.
Rashed Al Mahmud Titumir, Md. Shah Paran
Chapter 16. Fostering Mangrove Ecosystem Services for a Resilient Future for the Asia-Pacific Region: A Knowledge Synthesis
Abstract
As the threat of climate change intensifies across the Asia-Pacific region, there is an urgent need to foster resilient human societies in coastal areas in Asia. On a regional basis, conservation and restoration of mangroves are increasingly important to fulfill several intergovernmental targets, including the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), the Paris Agreement, and the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (SFDRR), among others. This chapter synthesizes major findings from 14 case studies included in this book and considers some key observations, opportunities, and challenges related to future mangrove sustainability and fostering climate-resilient societies. The chapter concludes with a call for integrating mangrove ecosystem services into coastal development and adaptation planning and identifies the possible avenues to strengthen the human-nature relationship along the Asian coast.
Rajarshi Dasgupta, Shizuka Hashimoto, Osamu Saito
Metadata
Title
Assessing, Mapping and Modelling of Mangrove Ecosystem Services in the Asia-Pacific Region
Editors
Rajarshi Dasgupta
Shizuka Hashimoto
Osamu Saito
Copyright Year
2022
Publisher
Springer Nature Singapore
Electronic ISBN
978-981-19-2738-6
Print ISBN
978-981-19-2737-9
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-2738-6