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Bioeconomy as a Driver for the Upcoming Seventh K-Wave (2050–2100) Read chapter Read first chapter

2021 | OriginalPaper | Chapter

23. Bioeconomy as Proponent of Digital Meanings Society

Author : Sirkka Heinonen

Published in: Bio#Futures

Publisher: Springer International Publishing

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Abstract

This article discusses societal transitions and particularly the one into a new phase after the information society. We will witness the emergence of a digital meanings society, in which the economy is based on the production and consumption of meanings and meaningfulness. Alongside with this techno-economic and sociocultural development or even a philosophical stance, we have seen several alternative characterizations for the new societal phase. Pathways towards digisociety, ecosociety or biosociety and experience society have been anticipated. The focus here will be on biosociety and how it can be intertwined with digital meanings society, propelling it or manifesting it. This is because biosociety may be the very phase that can guide us through the existential crisis that we humans have created by acting like the natural resources were limitless even though our planet does have physical limits. Change, growth, progress, meaningfulness, technology and nature are key ideas in this existential drama. The future will be moulded along the critical lines these ideas are being tackled and rethought.
Biosociety is based on bioeconomy. Bioeconomy instead has biotechnology as its driver. However, it is quintessential on a wider scale, too, how our relation to nature and to technology is conceived and practised in biosociety. What are the social constructions, philosophy and culture of life in biosociety? They are of equal importance in creation of a new societal phase, even though economy and technology are key and immediate drivers of change. Consequently, humans’ relation to nature on one hand and to technology on the other hand is in the core of achieving sustainable futures. It is interesting to perceive how these notions evolve in time, just like societies evolve through transitions into new phases. Besides reflecting upon the history of such ideas, it is intriguing to dwell on various metaphors of our interaction with nature and technology. Metaphors and myths live in us and affect our thinking, even unconsciously. The myth of Prometheus giving fire – (bio)technology – to us humans is a core myth in this sense to be addressed.
The relation of humans to nature seems to have a widening gap, whereas humans’ relation to technology is continuously bridging up. Our relation to nature and our relation to technology need to be rethought and revamped. “Technological somnambulism” describes the dilemma of modern times to willingly sleepwalk through the process of change. It means ignoring the notion that the technologies are not merely aids to human activity but also powerful forces reshaping that activity and its meaning. Biosociety and biotechnology give a meaningful context for humans living on the planet, but their outcomes have to be intentionally positive which is by no means and automatic process.

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previous chapter Bioeconomy Education
next chapter New Humanism: A Vital Component of Sustainable Socio-technical Change
Footnotes
1
More on the cyclic view in the next section
 
2
This theory of waves is much criticized. Joseph Schumpeter named the waves/cycles in honour of Kondratieff. For the next anticipated wave, see Wilenius and Kurki (2017).
 
3
The cradle-to-cradle concept was originally coined by Walter Stahel, member of the Club of Rome.
 
4
See, e.g. the Roman Stoic philosopher Seneca who deals with the origin and evolution of culture in great detail within his account of the Golden Age, mainly in Ep. 90. See also Heinonen (2000) for a more general level with Seneca’s view of humans as progenitors of civilization and their role in this progress as well as with their approach to nature and technology.
 
5
Schwabl (1978), RE Suppl. 15, s.v. Weltalter, 840
 
6
Ibid., 841. According to Empedocles’ hypothesis, the natural elements (earth, air, fire and water) combine to become One, the primal mover being Love. Then they disintegrate into Many due to Hatred. After the disintegration has reached its maximum level, love starts again its integration process. The cosmic history is an eternal repetition of this cyclic pattern. The ancient doctrine of the world periods was discussed in great detail in Greek philosophy after these thinkers. See Cairns (1962, 206).
 
7
In fact, the Epicureans who advocated the idea of linear progress also adopted the cyclic notion of the evolution of nature and culture, though on different grounds than the Stoics. According to Democritus, the world consists of an endlessly large amount of atoms of different size, weight and shape. This creates the variation of phenomena that exists in the world. Since the number of atoms is infinite, while the choice of species being finite, Epicurus concluded that the world had to repeat itself infinitely. All the thinkable combinations of atoms that have formed different worlds must already have existed, and they will appear again. The regeneration of the world is, however, determined by pure chance and not by logos as the Stoics claim (Cairns 1962, 222–223).
 
8
Heraclitus tells us of the great world year, which consists of 10,800 solar years (Aet. 2, 32, 3; Censor. De die nat. 18, 10) as pointed out by Schwabl (1978, 841). Moreover, Cairns (1962, 205) refers to another tradition, according to which the length of a world year is 18,000 years.
 
9
Cf. the cyclic theory with the Buddhist cosmic evolution theory of the ages of the world (kalpa). Besides fire and water, wind varies according to a mathematical series as an element of the destruction of the world. In Buddhism, the theory of the world ages is of old origin. However, it does not represent so much a philosophical, religious or mythic doctrine but rather “secular knowledge” (lokayatika). L. de la Vallée Poussin, Ages of the World (Buddhist), in Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, vol. 1, ed. By J. Hastings, Edinburgh 1908, 188–189.
 
10
For example, Statesman 269c–271c and 272d–273e; Tim. 22a-d and 39df; Republic 546a and 614b–617d, Kritias 109d–110a
 
11
Smith (1908, 197–198)
 
12
Plato calls the world year the Perfect Year, pointing out that humans know only a little about it. According to Censorinus, Aristotle calls the world year as maximus pro magnus annus. Plato Tim. 39de; Censor. De die nat. 18, 11; Schwabl (1978), 843–844.
 
13
On the other hand, Hawking (1988, 137) concludes that the “edgeless” model of the universe may abolish the prevailing Big Bang theory. Neither, according to the so-called logarithmic spiral theory of the universe, is the expansion of the universe based on drastic explosion, nor will it end in another such explosion. Instead, all is ultimately considered to expire quietly, and this silence will regenerate a new universe. This view is concerned with the cyclic notion of the development of the world, though without any intervening catastrophes.
 
14
Smith (1908, 196). In explaining the world, the Stoics advocated the cyclic theory and not the continually rising or decaying pattern of development.
 
15
One of the most prominent representations of the world ages was provided by Aratus in his Fainomena (897–149), where Hesiod’s doctrines were moulded in a Stoic view.
 
16
Smith (1908, 196)
 
17
SVF II 625; Sandbach (1975, 78). Besides the Stoics, the Pythagoreans also probably believed in the cosmic world year and the cyclic return of the world in the same details. Therefore, they have been characterized as absolute astrological fatalists, though on insufficient grounds. Most likely the Pythagoreans, as well as the Stoics, aimed at some kind of compromise between determinism and free will in the explication of fate and the future. H. Thesleff, The Pythagoreans in the light and shadows of recent research. Mysticism, Scripta Instituti Donneriani Aboensis 5, ed. by S. S. Hartman and C-M. Edsman, Stockholm 1970.
 
18
SVF II 598; Verbeke (1964, 12)
 
19
Sihvola (1989, 30) points out that if we consider the myth of the five species as an account of the moral decline of humankind, the cycle of decline may rather be conceived as occurring in the history of each particular species than in the history of humankind as a whole. The golden species or age is the only exception in this chain of declining cycles. It has even been questioned whether the childishness of the silver species was in fact a less valuable characteristic than the strength and warlike nature of the bronze species. von Fritz, K., Pandora, Prometheus and the Myth of Ages, RR 10: 238, 1947; Fontenrose, J., Work, Justice and Hesiod’s Five Ages, CPh 69, 8. 1974.
 
20
Verbeke (1964, 10–11)
 
21
For the numerous different meanings of natura in Seneca’s philosophical writings and tragedies, see, e.g. Boyle 1987, Seneca’s Phaedra, Appendix 1, 213–214.
 
22
Most Latin references are based on the texts of Cicero.
 
23
The term “interaction” has been chosen to point out the mutual action in the relation between nature and humans. Accordingly, attention is paid both to the attitudes of humans towards nature and the action of nature on humans.
 
24
This argument could also be interpreted to justify the instrumental view. Nature could be seen as an instrument for the very existence of humans.
 
25
If nature is destroyed, humankind would disappear as well. This point of nature’s intrinsic value could, on the other hand, be questioned by asking for whom nature would have value if humans did not exist. Values are usually taken to exist in relation to humans.
 
26
Haila (1990, 15) points out that moral responsibility begins only after humans have been liberated from the shackles of nature. Humans cannot be morally demanded something that is not possible for them. The two classes defined through their opposition to nature are also distinguished from each other in the moral dimension. In the group where humans defend themselves against nature, it is a question of survival, whereas in the group where humans conquer nature, it is a question of the moral right to perform such action.
 
27
Nature can be conceived as an instrument for some good, morally acceptable cause. Thus, the instrumental view in itself does not deserve moral reprimand.
 
28
The term “utilism” does not mean the same as the well-known ethical doctrine of “utilitarianism” (Pietarinen 1991, 581).
 
29
Compare this to another view called conditional optimism, represented, e.g. by von Wright, which admits the possibility of final destruction. von Wright believes that the direction of development can be changed if we wish so. All responsibility rests on our shoulders.
 
30
Profit thinking must have been a supporting pillar in the political life in ancient Athens, witnessed by Plato’s severe criticism on the search for welfare.
 
31
Darwinism could also be used as an argument defending the special position of humans. The intellectual and moral superiority of humans could be argued on the basis of the principle of the survival of the fittest in Darwinism. Such an argument, however, is not valid for justifying the right to act with no respect for other living creatures (Pietarinen 1994, 293). It has been argued, e.g. by Singer, that animals, at least sentient ones, have the same basic moral right to life and freedom as humanity has (Singer, P., Animal Liberation. Avon Books, 1978). Further, Paul W. Taylor has developed a system of environmental ethics which is based on the principle of equal respect for the good of all living beings (Taylor, P.W., Respect for nature: A Theory of Environmental Ethics. Princeton University Press, 1987).
 
32
Both anthropocentrism and biocentrism can regard nature as intrinsically valuable, but they are still different.
 
33
After studying the passages in Seneca’s texts where the relation of humans with nature is involved, I have come to the conclusion that all such passages could be classified into one of the three categories I propose here. First, all three categories are represented in Seneca’s texts. Second, all three categories emphasize a specific cognitive orientation in the history of culture.
 
34
See, e.g. Ep. 5, 4; 41, 9; 98, 14; 118, 12.
 
35
Reinhardt 1953, 808. Citations in Epistulae Morales show that Epicurus advocated the same view (Ep. 16, 7; 118, 12). Sequere naturam was a major principle in Stoic ethics already since Zeno and Cleanthes. The same admonition is present in Seneca’s tragedies as well (e.g. Phaedra 481): proinde vitae sequere naturam ducem. Boyle 1987, Seneca’s Phaedra, 166.
 
36
The topic of otium was widely discussed in classical literature. See, e.g. Seneca’s treatise De Otio.
 
37
The humans of the Golden Age cannot, strictly speaking, be compared to agrarian, or hunting and gathering societies. This is because agriculture was not practiced and animals were not hunted. Neither did they have to put much effort into gathering food: all that nature lavishly produced could be picked at arm’s length.
 
38
Distinction must here be made, though, between the Stoic view of divine order as Providentia, which always knows what is best for humans, and Fortuna, a fickle divinity imposing things on humans at her own will.
 
39
Exploitation and domination of nature is built upon a mistaken coupling of the particular mode of mechanical progress with an unjustifiable sense of increasing moral superiority of humans (Mumford 1966, 4).
 
40
In terms of energy and material flow, the human economy is a fully dependent subsystem of the ecosphere. Wackernagel and Rees (1996, 4) suggest that humanity’s role in nature should be studied in much the same way as that of any other large consumer organism. Humankind has become a major (and in many cases the dominant) species in practically every significant ecosystem on the planet.
 
41
Science could be thus conceived as comprising both the power to know the laws and the power to use the laws.
 
42
As von Wright (1987b, 185) points out, the ultimate legitimizating grounds for our modern technological way of life has been the notion that God has given humans the right to dominate nature. Later, however, as the power of humans in relation to nature grew, their self-sufficiency increased as well. Accordingly, the right of humans to dominate nature became self-made and needed no other justification.
 
43
See von Wright (1987, 57).
 
44
von Wright (1987, 59). The same ambivalence and potential for good and evil dwell in the concept of technology (see more on this in Chap. VII). The underlying idea and the analogy are of course that technology is based on some knowledge.
 
45
The same is valid for the paradise myth and the legend of Faust, in a sense that they present us humans as torn between two dominating powers, light and darkness.
 
46
Antirationalism means self-deceit of humanity. Antirationalism has to be opposed to in our modern age when some ideologies inhibit the free growth of human rationality. On the other hand, rational optimism has to be opposed to in the ages when life is threatened by the flattening impact of self-admiration. Both of these struggles continue to be actual throughout world history.
 
47
Making humans as rational actors is partly a question of education and partly, or perhaps primarily, a question of the organizing and planning of society. Mere formulation of the problem may be a first step towards the solution. Problems that are not clearly presented cannot be tackled with any success.
 
48
von Wright (1987b, 86) points out that the knowledge of such links and roots may not make us wiser in solving practical problems. However, it may alleviate the sense of helplessness which easily besets modern thinking humans when they view the changes in the ways of life enabled by science and realized by its applications.
 
49
However, Bachelard (1949) warns that it should not be confused with the Freudian Oedipus complex.
 
50
Gaston Bachelard, La psychanalyse du feu, Gallimard, Paris, 1949, p. 31
 
51
van de Braak (1995, 22) draws an analogy to scientific communities having “founding fathers.” A scholar may wish to beat the “king” of the scientific community in order to win the favour of the “queen”, i.e. the reader or the colleagues.
 
52
van de Braak (1995, 21–22) compares the approach to technology with a child having to obtain personal knowledge of fire only by disobedience. A child is tempted to become a little Prometheus and play with matches, i.e. fire. And yet, the first thing to be learnt from fire as a child is that we must not touch it. Therefore, the social interdiction is our first general knowledge of fire.
 
53
Pandora’s box is actually an incorrect expression. It was a great vase that Pandora brought in her arms. By raising the lid, terrible afflictions escaped and spread over the earth. Hope alone was left in the vase (and for humankind), since it did not fly away (NLEM 1985, 93).
 
54
According to van de Braak (1995, 20), technical and scientific curiosity may have a model in sexual curiosity. Because sexuality is mysterious, all mysterious things evoke sexuality (Bachelard 1949, 185). All knowledge is originally intimate, personal knowledge, i.e. bodily experiences by the senses. This is being referred to by the expression “carnal knowledge” (from lat. carnus). An illustration in point is given by the non-metaphorical use of the term “know” in the Bible: “And Abraham knew his wife Sarah.”
 
55
With certain nuclear waste, the time scale of impacts is even longer.
 
56
Just 2 years after the Neo-Carbon Energy study was published, the spin-off company Solar Foods is in full swing to commercialize the process, and has started production. The European Space Agency (ESA) has already expressed an interest in using the technology for space travel. The technology could also have applications in developing countries where land is precious. This is how short the innovation distance can be between science fiction and the everyday realization.
 
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Metadata
Title
Bioeconomy as Proponent of Digital Meanings Society
Author
Sirkka Heinonen
Copyright Year
2021
Book
Bio#Futures

Print ISBN: 978-3-030-64968-5

Electronic ISBN: 978-3-030-64969-2

Copyright Year: 2021

DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-64969-2_23