Introduction
Polymer system | Polymer name | Single or hybrid clay fillers—with or without modification | Polymer solution—nanofibre/clay characterisations | Suggested applications by the reference authors | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Single polymer | Nylon 6 | MMT | DSC, SEM, TEM, WAXRD | – | [8] |
Nylon 6 | O-MMT | VIS, SEM, TEM, WXRD, DSC, TGA, MP | High-performance filters and fibre reinforcement materials | [9] | |
Nylon 6 | O-MMT | VIS, ST, SEM, AFM, TEM, DWA | Water adsorption | [10] | |
Nylon 6 | (O-MMT) with Fe2O3 sputter coating | SEM-EDX, AFM, XPS, TGA | Functional materials | [11] | |
Nylon 6 | Fe-OMT | TGA, HREM, SEM, XRD, LR | – | [12] | |
Nylon 6 | Synthesised Fe-OMT | FTIR, XRD, HREM, SEM-EDX, TGA | – | [13] | |
Nylon 6 | MMT, O-MMT | TGA, DSC, SEM, AFM, XRD | – | [14] | |
Nylon 6 | Synthesised Fe-OMT with magnetron sputter coating | HREM, SEM-EDX, AFM, XPS, TGA, FP | Fire-protective fabrics | [15] | |
Nylon 6 | MMT clay | SEM, TEM, EDX, XRD, MP, BP, MA, LP, MG | Coated packaging films against oxygen and moisture | [16] | |
Nylon 6 | MMT clay | TGA, SEM, TEM, CC | Fire-protective clothing | [17] | |
Nylon 6 | O-MMT | VIS, EC, ST, WAXRD, SEM, TEM | – | [18] | |
Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) | Na-MMT nanocomposites | XRD, TEM, SM | – | [19] | |
PAN | Synthesised Fe-OMT | XRD, TEM, SEM, TGA, FP, MP | Fire-protective fabrics | [20] | |
PAN | Sodium-activated (Na-MMT) | SEM, TEM, XRD, TGA | – | [21] | |
PAN | Hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) modified MMT (MMT/GO) | SEM, AFM, TEM, XRD, TGA, MP | As nanofillers | [22] | |
PAN | Synthesised Na-MMT | SEM, WAXRD, TGA, IEP | Environmental protection | [23] | |
Cellulose acetate (CA) | MMT | VIS, EC, TGA, DTG, XRD, MP, SEM, EF-TEM, EDX | – | [24] | |
CA | O-MMT | SEM, TEM, UV-S | Enzyme immobilisation | [25] | |
Cellulose extracted from corn | Na-MMT | XRD, FTIR, VIS, SEM, DSC | – | [26] | |
CA | Anion surfactant/MMT | SEM, FTIR, DSC, TGA, XRD, HMA | Heavy metal adsorbent in water treatment | [27] | |
PVA | MMT | FE-SEM, XRD, TGA, MP | – | [28] | |
MMW-PVA, HMW-PVA | MMT | VIS, FE-SEM, TEM, TGA, MP | – | [29] | |
PVA | MMT/Ag nanoparticles | FE-SEM, TEM, XRD, TGA, AP | Antibacterial applications | [30] | |
PVDF | Na-MMT | WAXRD, FTIR, DSC, TEM, SEM, VIS | – | [31] | |
PVDF | MMT | Crystallisation kinetics | – | [32] | |
PVDF | MMT | FE-SEM, P, EU, DSC, FTIR, IC | Separators for lithium-ion batteries | [33] | |
PU | O-MMT | WAXRD, SEM, TEM, EC, MP | – | [34] | |
PU | Chlorhexidine acetate drug (CA)/MMT | SEM, XRD, CAM, P, AP, DRM | Topical drug delivery application | [35] | |
PLA | Synthesised MMT | SEC, DSC, TGA, TEM, WAXRD, FTIR, PM | Gas barrier for food packaging applications | [36] | |
PLLA | MMT | SEM, XRD | Engineered scaffold applications | [37] | |
Silk fibron | MMT | SEM, FE-SEM, TEM, FTIR–XRD | Scaffold for tissue engineering | [38] | |
Levan | Na-MMT | UV-S, SLS, DLS, WAXRD, TGA, DSC, FTIR, MP | Cosmetics and pharmaceutical coatings | [39] | |
Blends of polymers | PLA/keratin | Na-MMT | VIS, EC, SEM, TEM, ATR–FTIR, DSC, FPT | Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) removal filters from | [40] |
Pullulan/PVA | MMT | SEM, TEM, FTIR, XRD, TGA, MP | – | [41] | |
Pullulan/PVA | MMT | FE-SEM, TEM, XRD, TGA, WAM, WRM, MP | Personal hygiene products | [42] | |
PVA/PVDF | O-MMT | SEM, FTIR, TGA, MP, IC, CV | Lithium-ion batteries | [43] | |
PVA/Chitosan | MMT | FE-SEM, XRD, TEM, MP, TGA | Reinforcement in matrix | [44] | |
PVA/PVP | Octadecyl amine (ODA)-MMT | FTIR, XRD, FE-SEM, TEM, EDX, TGA, DSC, EC, TR | Electrically conductive nanomaterials | [45] | |
PVA/poly(VP-alt-MA) | (ODA)-MMT + silver (Ag) | ||||
PVA/Poly(MA-alt-MVE) | (ODA)-MMT | FTIR, XRD, FE-SEM, EDX, CVMS | Power, electrochemical and fuel cell nanotechnology | [46] | |
PVA/poly(maleic acid-alt-acrylic acid) | (ODA)-MMT + Ag | FTIR, XRD, SEM, TGA, DSC, EC, TR, CVMS | Electrically conductive nanomaterials | [47] | |
PVA/poly(itaconic anhydride-alt-2-vinyl, 1,3 dioxalan) | (ODA)-MMT + Ag | FTIR, XRD, FE-SEM, TGA, DSC, EC, TR, CVMS | Microelectronics, nanolithographical technology and semiconductors | [48] | |
Co-polymers | Poly(MMA-CO-MAA) | Synthesised Na-MMT | SEM, TEM, WAXRD, TS, DLSM, PSR | – | [49] |
PCL and G-PLA | (ODA)-Na-MMT + Ag | FTIR, SEM–EDX, FE-SEM, TEM, TGA | Biomedical applications | [50] | |
Poly(vinyl alcohol-co-vinyl acetate) | (ODA)-MMT + Ag | XRD, FE-SEM, AAT | Food, bioengineering and nano-engineering processing | [51] |
Materials and methods
Materials
BC purification and activation
Chemical analysis of BC
Fabrication of CA/BC composite nanofibrous fabrics
Viscosity, surface tension and electrical conductivity measurements
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX)
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and nanoscale EDX mapping
Structure and thermal analysis of CA/BC composite nanofibrous fabrics
Results and discussion
Purification, activation and suspension of BC
Materials | SiO2 | Al2O3 | Fe2O3 | MgO | CaO | CO2 | H2O | Na2O | TiO2 | Sum |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Raw BC | 46.6 | 14.4 | 7.2 | 6.7 | 5.8 | 6.2 | 12.8 | 0.13 | 0.16 | 99.99 |
HCl-purified BC | 53.5 | 16.5 | 7.9 | 4.5 | 2.2 | – | 14.8 | 0.08 | 0.13 | 99.61 |
Na2CO3-activated BC | 51.8 | 16.6 | 7.8 | 4.3 | 2.16 | 1.37 | 13.6 | 2.1 | 0.13 | 99.86 |
Electrospinning of CA/BC composite nanofibrous fabrics
Morphology of HCl-purified and Na2CO3-activated BC and CA/BC composite nanofibres
Viscosity, surface tension and electrical conductivity of CA/BC solutions
Structure and thermal properties of CA/BC composite nanofibrous fabrics
Materials | \( \varvec{T}_{{\mathbf{D}}} \) Onset (°C) | \( \varvec{T}_{{\mathbf{D}}} \) 20% (°C) | Residue at 600 °C (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Purified and activated BC | – | – | 82.33 |
CA15BC0 | 240 | 272 | 11.96 |
CA15BC5 | 230 | 249 | 15.12 |
CA15BC10 | 220 | 237 | 18.06 |