Circular Economy Design and Management in the Built Environment

This document serves as the opening chapter of a book that addresses the critical issue of resource depletion in the built environment, illustrating the unsustainable trends in current construction and demolition practices that extensively rely on new raw materials. It highlights the significant impact of the building sector on global resource consumption, energy utilization, and waste generation, with alarming statistics such as buildings accounting for 40% of the world’s extracted materials and a significant source of waste and greenhouse gas emissions. Advocating for a transformative shift towards a circular economy in the built environment, the text emphasizes sustainable and regenerative economic practices that minimize waste and maximize resource efficiency. This approach necessitates the redesign of systems to ensure the durability, reparability, and recyclability of construction materials, thereby promoting a model where waste is systematically eliminated and materials are continually repurposed. The document also discusses the 10R strategy, which centres on minimizing waste and enhancing resource efficiency, and explores various circular practices within the construction sector. It includes examples from case studies and best practices to demonstrate the viability and advantages of adopting circular economy principles. The challenges and success factors in implementing such practices are thoroughly examined, emphasizing the urgent need for increased awareness, supportive policies, and robust stakeholder collaboration to foster a more sustainable and resource-efficient built environment. The first chapter sets the stage for a detailed exploration of these themes throughout the book’s subsequent sections.

Research and technological developments have mainly focused on increasing the energy efficiency of buildings, improving the thermal properties of the envelope and reducing energy consumption. Another critical issue is related to waste reduction and implementation of circular economy frameworks. Moreover, building services have a significant impact upon the health of users and any application of the circular economy has to consider the effect on the occupants’ well-being. In this chapter, two aspects are considered: the first relates to the building systems which utilise energy for heating, cooling, ventilation, electrical supply; the second concerns the systems converting the energy from the sun, wind, and soil. Regarding the usage of energy in buildings, the types of materials applied in building services are categorised including metals, plastics, electronic components, etc. The barriers to the adoption of circular supply chain management are illustrated collecting information from the literature, especially in the air conditioning sector. Then, the electricity and thermal energy production from renewable sources are presented in the light of implementing a circular economy at the building and urban scale. Solar, both PV and thermal, wind, and geothermal technologies are illustrated in terms of trends in installation and prediction of waste production. Best practices of recycling are illustrated from projects, industrial processes, and companies. The collected information highlights the need for closer collaboration between the involved stakeholders, starting from the citizens and extending to all members of the design, construction, and building management professions.

Circular Manufacturing (CM), understood as CE strategies adopted in manufacturing, takes a key position in decoupling industry growth from environmental impacts. To achieve a transition into circular economy in construction, a clear view on the state-of-the art is crucial. Construction materials such as concrete, cross-laminated timber or steel have an environmental impact during their production and circularity is not always given. Knowing that the design phase of a product defines a big part of its overall environmental footprint, this chapter discusses CM principles and most commonly pursued CM strategies for steel, concrete and timber. Effects and impacts on buildings and eventual challenges are discussed. Furthermore, Additive Manufacturing (AM), as a possible key driver of circularity is analysed. The reduction of material use is identified as key driver in order to reduce material flows, however structural safety and durability needs to be assured. The design and mixture of construction products and materials itself together with an efficient design process in the projects are essential pillars of CM. Prefabrication, modular construction as well as DfD and DfA are key principles that can be achieved with all the analysed construction materials but are more widespread in steel construction today.

The recovery and reuse of salvaged products and building materials from existing structures is an essential practice in sustainable construction and environmental conservation. This process, often referred to as building deconstruction or architectural salvage, involves carefully dismantling buildings to preserve reusable materials. It offers numerous benefits, including significant environmental impact reduction, economic advantages, and historical preservation. Environmentally, it reduces the amount of construction and demolition debris in landfills, conserves natural resources by reusing existing materials, and reduces the carbon footprint by decreasing the need for new materials, thus reducing emissions from manufacturing and transportation. Recovery and reuse involve several steps. It begins with assessment and planning, where a detailed site assessment is performed to identify salvageable materials. A deconstruction plan is then developed that details the steps and methods to safely dismantle the structure. During the deconstruction phase, the building is carefully dismantled, starting from the top down, using manual labour and specialised tools to preserve the materials in good condition. These materials are then separated into categories such as steel, timber, concrete, bricks, etc. Next, the salvaged materials undergo cleaning and processing, making them ready for reuse. Proper storage and distribution are crucial to preserve the integrity of materials. However, practice faces challenges such as labour intensity, risks of contamination from hazardous materials such as asbestos and lead paint, fluctuating market demand, and ensuring the quality and safety of reused materials, which may require certification and compliance with building codes. The present chapter starts with aspects of pre-demolition/deconstruction audit that involves the collection of information about the materials and elements that will be recovered and continues with the evaluation of reusability of materials, mainly with steel, timber and concrete, structural components, entire primary and secondary structure.

This chapter explored the current theory and practices on circular building design to provide an overview of what a circular building is and how a circular building has been implemented by design through a literature review. Until now, the circular economy in the built environment has mainly been implemented through technological innovation focusing on materials, products, business models and industrial systems. Design for a circular economy in the built environment has progressively expanded from single products and components to building and urban systems. The enlargement of the design scope has entailed a shift from insular to system innovation. Besides a technocentric approach focused on circulating resources through economic and technical innovation, a holistic vision has emerged in the literature that sees circularity as a transformation which integrates technological, social, organizational and institutional considerations of circularity to promote systemic changes in large urban social-technical systems. This study initially investigated the current understanding of the circular building concept, and then analysed design frameworks applied to develop circular buildings by reviewing the literature. Finally, it defined propositions for evaluating the current level of implementation of circular buildings This exploration provided an overview of the current body of knowledge on the circular building concept, a classification of existing design frameworks and strategies for implementing the circular building concept and the identification of relevant propositions to test through case study research to assess the level of implementation of circular buildings.

The concepts of “modularity” and “prefabrication” require a deeper understanding being crucial to investigate their relation with the circular economy. Prefabrication involves pre-manufacturing building elements off-site and their transport to the construction site and assembly. Prefabrication can be divided into different categories: Component, Non-volumetric, Volumetric, Modular construction, Hybrid structures, or Whole building prefabrication; and can be based on linear (e.g., columns or pillars), bidimensional (e.g., walls or floor panels), or tri-dimensional elements (e.g., modules or whole prefabricated houses). The most commonly used materials are steel, wood, and concrete, although plastic, composite, and nature-based materials are increasingly being explored. While comparing the prefabricated materials, steel has high embodied impacts but recycle and reuse potential, timber has biogenic content and high reuse potential, and concrete poses transport and assembly challenges. The refurbishment of prefabricated buildings and the use of prefabricated elements in refurbishment are also discussed. The main benefits of adopting prefabrication are impact, cost, material, waste, and time reduction, with quality increase; and the challenges are cultural, technical, and market aspects with some investment required. A bibliometric analysis explores the relationship between modularity, prefabrication, and circular construction and concludes that the link between the three concepts seems fragile and unclear.

This chapter summarizes the basic principles of the Design for Circularity, Design for Adaptability and Design for Disassembly in the design face of building projects. The chapter initially provides a general overview of the circularity principles and the 10R incorporation in the design of circular buildings. At a second step, the basic actions to promote the adaptability and the modularity are presented and discussed.

Nowadays design for reversibility and transformability are gaining interest in the field of architecture and sustainable design and are directly connected with the circular economy framework. This chapter will attempt to map and analyse the current knowledge on the concepts of reversible and transformable buildings, by presenting the basic background and terminology, their application on the material, component and whole building level, the challenges and barriers, as well as the benefits and enablers for implementing reversibility and transformability in structures. Paradigms of reversible and transformable buildings are synoptically presented at the end of the chapter, in order to highlight how these concepts can be actually applied to real life constructions.

Amid the introduction of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals, the longevity and lifecycle of heritage and modern buildings and the process of redevelopment have come under greater scrutiny. Through adaptive reuse, i.e., changes that involve both a functional and a physical component, practitioners can give a second life to existing buildings. To define the state of the art in the scientific research focused on building adaptive reuse, the authors conducted a rapid evidence assessment. It emerged that adaptive reuse is comprehensive topic that deals with social, economic and environmental issues. The goal of the adaptive reuse studies varies from social to environmental topics such as human-centred adaptive reuse, and energy efficient adaptive reuse. A comprehensive approach to adaptive reuse requires integrated strategies aimed at preserving valuable pre-existing human artifacts in the Anthropocene era, characterized by unsustainable consumption and transience of data and images. Adaptive reuse combines pragmatism and creativity and requires sensitivity in the selective approach on existing structures, contexts, and materials. Adaptive reuse projects call for specific skills and targeted strategies that falls into different action categories: reuse, restoration and renewal, i.e., innovative transformations of the “old and degraded” into “new and performative”. Overall, adaptive reuse optimizes environmental sustainability, efficient regeneration processes, increased community interest, and profitability, making it an attractive opportunity for stakeholders seeking to revitalize urban and peri urban areas. Adaptive reuse projects deliver workable solutions, support heritage and cultural preservation, while meeting the changing needs of communities.

Circular economy (CE) approaches highlight the potential of construction materials to achieve circularity and sustainability in resource-efficient construction systems and industries. Implementing CE at the material level involves factors such as efficiency, durability, waste reduction through recirculation, and replacement, while encompassing criteria that define circularity in building materials. Understanding the inherent characteristics and behaviours of these materials is crucial for maximising their circularity potential. This chapter analyses key properties of traditional construction materials, such as concrete and steel, alongside novel sustainable materials like bamboo, timber, and biomaterials. It identifies and proposes methods to promote circularity at the material level. Additionally, the chapter explores the application of CE principles to both traditional and innovative construction materials. Furthermore, the chapter discusses indicators designed to assess circularity at the material level, serving as valuable tools for informing decision-making and implementation practices in the construction sector. Various types of indicators are presented, categorised as strategic, generic performance, performance, and water consumption indicators. Strategies aligned with waste hierarchy principles are outlined, emphasising the reduction of construction and demolition waste, lowering greenhouse gas emissions, conserving energy, and optimising costs and water resources.

The implementation of circular economy principles in building activities holds the potential for substantial environmental, economic, and social benefits. Although extensive research has examined the impact of circularity strategies on various aspects of buildings, there is a significant gap in the literature focusing specifically on building components and systems (BC&S). Most existing studies develop indicators applicable to buildings as a whole or solely at the materials level. This study aims to address this gap by identifying and emphasising specific circularity criteria for BC&S, including structure, infill, and services. The primary objective is to elucidate the contribution of each system to the overall circularity of buildings, thereby prioritising the most impactful circularity aspects. At the component level, it is essential to consider the specific attributes of component assemblies that constitute a system. To enhance the practical application of these findings, the study is supplemented with relevant case studies demonstrating best practices for circularity in BC&S. These case studies provide empirical evidence and practical examples of how targeted circularity strategies can improve the sustainability and efficiency of building practices, thereby advancing the goals of the circular economy.

The built environment accounts for approximately 50% of total raw material extraction and 25% of all waste in the European Union, much of which comprises materials with significant potential for reuse and recycling. Given the finite nature of the planet’s resources, transitioning to a circular economy (CE) approach within the built environment, particularly at the building design level, is essential for sustainability. Indicators serve as vital tools for assessing circularity and guiding the implementation of CE principles in the design, construction and management of buildings and infrastructure. This chapter examines international, European, and national policies and standards, highlighting the most pertinent circularity indicators at the whole building design level. It provides a categorised list of the most widely used indicators for measuring circularity. A bibliographic-analytical approach is employed to evaluate the prevalence and alignment of various sustainability and circularity indicators within international and European policies and standards at the building level. The efforts of European countries, with particular reference to Portugal and Spain, in developing circularity frameworks for the construction sector, are also explored. The identified indicators are classified into seven categories based on their impact areas: Material and Resources, Energy, Water, Waste Management, Ecosystem, Social, and Economic. Each category and its subset indicators are analysed in detail. Finally, the chapter provides recommendations for further research to enhance the integration of CE principles into the design processes of the construction sector, thereby contributing to a more sustainable built environment.

As the world embraces sustainable practices, the concept of circularity has become increasingly important, especially in the context of existing buildings. This chapter comprehensively analyses circularity tools and methods, focusing on their application in the built environment. By examining a variety of tools—both quantitative and qualitative—we explore their methodologies, information requirements, and levels of detail. This structured approach systematically evaluates products, materials, and systems in terms of their potential to support a closed-loop materials flow. Our analysis highlights the necessity of continuously updating and refining these tools to incorporate the latest data, trends, and technologies, guiding the construction and urban development sectors toward a more sustainable future. The chapter is a valuable resource for practitioners, researchers, and policymakers seeking to enhance the sustainability of existing buildings.

The assessment of circularity in new building projects necessitates consideration of diverse factors such as material choice, design strategies, construction methods, operational efficiency, and end-of-life practices. Various tools and methodologies have been developed to aid stakeholders in the construction industry in evaluating these aspects and making informed decisions. With the dynamic evolution of the circular economy, understanding current circular practices is crucial for identifying areas needing enhancement. However, the absence of a tandardized approach poses a challenge, with existing methods often either too broad or narrowly focused on specific circular elements. This limits the comprehensive evaluation of system performance. Addressing these challenges requires practical tools, particularly for early design stages, that integrate quantitative methods to ensure circularity and environmental performance goals are met efficiently. This chapter reviews existing circularity assessment parameters, discusses aggregation methods for criteria and indicators, and evaluates available tools to guide researchers, practitioners, and policymakers in advancing circular practices in construction.

This chapter offers a comprehensive analysis of the intersection between digitalisation and the circular economy (CE) within the construction sector. It underscores the transformative potential of integrating digital tools to advance circularity objectives across managerial, environmental, economic, and social dimensions. The chapter discusses fourteen digital tools and technologies, which play a pivotal role in CE by streamlining data integration and visualisation, enhancing the accuracy of Life Cycle Costing (LCC) and Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) assessments, and supporting the adoption of CE strategies. Moreover, it explores how digital tools can facilitate collaboration among stakeholders, fostering knowledge sharing and effective communication throughout the project lifecycle. Nevertheless, challenges such as the absence of standardised methods, data interoperability issues, and the need for well-defined system boundaries remain. The chapter highlights the critical role of digitalisation in advancing the transition towards CE in the construction sector, emphasising the necessity of overcoming technical and systemic obstacles to fully harness the potential of digital tools in implementing CE. This transition aligns with the broader ambitions of the European Green Deal and the EU Digital Strategy, aiming to create a more sustainable, efficient, and resilient construction industry. By addressing these challenges and leveraging digitalisation, the construction sector can make a significant contribution to a sustainable and circular economy, ultimately benefiting both the environment and society.

The twin transition driven by European agendas emphasises the dual benefits of integrating digital technologies with green sustainability concepts. In the built environment and construction sector, this integration is exemplified by leveraging digitalisation to enhance circularity in construction processes. This chapter explores this synergy by focusing on the development and application of Material and Building Passports (MPs and BPs). It discusses how these passports are digitally utilised to optimise circularity aspects of buildings and construction materials. The chapter delineates the evolution of MPs and BPs, clarifying their various definitions, variants, and potential applications to support the sector's twin transition. Additionally, it examines numerous initiatives and pilot projects aimed at defining the passports, including their requirements and conditions, and the standardisation efforts to ensure their widespread adoption through a unified content structure. The roles of MPs and BPs across different lifecycle stages are elaborated, with a particular emphasis on the enhanced functionalities enabled by Building Information Modelling (BIM). Moreover, the chapter identifies several barriers impeding the full adoption of these passports, such as legislative and standardisation challenges, information security concerns, lack of collaboration, and issues with information accessibility and sharing. It concludes by suggesting future research directions to further refine the passports for optimised use by construction industry stakeholders.

The construction sector is a major contributor to environmental degradation, prompting the need for integrating sustainability into its practices. This need has driven the development of sustainability assessment methods across various scales of the built environment. Simultaneously, the recent emphasis on Circular Economy (CE) principles has introduced challenges in translating these principles into measurable outcomes within the construction sector. This study aims to investigate the extent to which circularity principles are embedded within existing sustainability assessment methods for new buildings. The study begins by addressing the interrelationships and distinctions between circularity and sustainability concepts, establishing a foundation for the subsequent analysis. Five internationally recognised sustainability assessment methods for new buildings—BREEAM, DGNB, LEED, Level(s), SBTool—were examined to assess their incorporation of circularity aspects. Each component of these methods was scrutinised for alignment with the 10 circularity strategies outlined in the well-established 10-R framework of waste hierarchy. Expert groups, consisting of CircularB COST Action members, independently evaluated the methods and provided opinions on the direct and indirect associations between the assessed components and the 10-R principles. Disagreements were resolved through group discussions. The analysis revealed varying degrees of integration and explicit reference to circularity principles across the assessed methods. The study also highlighted the subjectivity inherent in identifying correlations and the challenges connected to linking certain circularity-related concepts in the built environment—such as resilience and adaptability—with the 10-R strategies. The findings underscore the need for a more in-depth analysis before making direct comparisons of the integration of circularity principles among different sustainability assessment methods, given their methodological differences. The study also identifies directions for future research.

The building sector contributes around 39% of global carbon dioxide emissions and consumes nearly 40% of all the energy produced. Over the whole life cycle, the building sector yields over 35% of the EU's total waste generation. These facts substantiate the necessity to implement circular economy in the built environments, in order to mitigate global warming and climate change emergency. This chapter highlights the state-of-the-art knowledge and research gap with respect to the stakeholders’ influences, inter-relationships, and obstacles for circular economy implementation on building stocks. In this chapter, a robust critical literature review of key documentations such as research articles, industry standards, policy reports, strategic roadmaps, case studies, and white papers has been rigorously conducted together with expert interviews. The state-of-the-art review addresses multi scales of CE practices adopted within the built environments. This chapter spells out current challenges and obstacles often encountered by various stakeholders. Case studies related to circular economy implementation have been drawn in order to promote such the CE practices across value chains in different regions and counties; and to overcome the barriers for circular economy implementation.

Large infrastructure projects are significant for societal and economic development, involving different types of infrastructure and many stakeholders. This chapter outlines the stages of the project life cycle, emphasizing the importance of stakeholder engagement at all stages for successful project outcomes. The stages include initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and control, and closure, each with defined objectives, outcomes, and decision-making activities. Due to the complexity of infrastructure projects, effective stakeholder relationship management is essential. The chapter emphasizes the need for continuous communication, strategic engagement, and proactive risk management to align project objectives with stakeholder interests. Case studies and literature reviews show how stakeholder participation improves project performance, sustainability, and societal impact. The findings highlight the importance of integrating stakeholder perspectives to achieve effective project management and meet performance indicators, ultimately leading to successful project implementation and long-term societal benefits. In order to characterize the role of stakeholders, mutual relations and obstacles to the implementation of the circular economy outside the European Union, the case of Albania, which will soon become a potential member state of the European Union, is analyzed. The problems with the involvement of interested parties in the implementation of the infrastructure project and the benefits and obstacles are similar for both the member state of the European Union and the countries that are just about to become one.

This section is devoted to analyzing the construction industry as one of the significant industries within the economy of any country with a high potential for circularity. According to Huovila and Westerholm [1], the buildings and construction sector is an essential contributor to environmental impacts and wealth creation in society, with social consequences. Globally, construction uses 36% of the energy, produces 39% of emissions, up to 40% of waste, and uses 50% of all the extracted materials. This undoubtedly emphasizes the significance of the industry and the necessity to transform it from a linear business model development towards a circular one to maintain the higher added value of the resources already currently in the economic cycle and significantly impact the consumption of primary resources. This section will provide an overview of different obstacles in the industry, followed by gaps in awareness and knowledge of the stakeholders and various case studies carried out during the research to highlight the potential solutions for shifting the mindsets and business models operating within the construction sector. The section also provides high-quality examples of successful study courses that can be integrated into different study programs to prepare highly-professional specialists in the construction industry or provide general knowledge on the industry and it’s potential for circularity for any other stakeholders.

This chapter presents a deep discussion of the recent case studies on implementation of best practices and strategies for the circular economy, and an integrated approach to CE management in the built environment. The case studies were evaluated by the following aspects: Design for Circular Economy; Resource Optimization; Collaborative Approaches; Digital Technologies; Policy and Regulatory Frameworks; Consumer Engagement; Life Cycle Assessment; Circular Business Models; Smart Monitoring and Evaluation; Stakeholder Collaboration. These studies indicated the diversity of best practices in CE management in different fields. On the other hand, a strategic planning and collaborative development of circular practices with relevant stakeholders are crucial for the effective development and implementation of circular capabilities and initiatives in the built environment.