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2024 | Book

Climate Change and Human Adaptation in India

Sustainability and Public Policy

Editors: Kaushal Kumar Sharma, Sanjeev Sharma, Vijendra Kumar Pandey, Rupendra Singh

Publisher: Springer Nature Switzerland

Book Series : Sustainable Development Goals Series

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About this book

This contributed volume presents an attempt to understand climatic variability and induced risk to livelihood of communities and to offer insights on how catastrophic conditions and crises can be mitigated through public policy interventions. The case studies herein offer insights into different spheres and domains affected by climate change and present models of adaptation possibilities. The book is divided into three thematic sections. The first contains chapters that deal with assessing the effects of climate change. The second section offers perspectives on adaptation and governance, vulnerability in the context of sustainable livelihoods. The third and last section looks at Policy and Governance, with respect to climatic change adaptation and mitigations. The lessons contained in this volume are useful to a wide audience including research scholars, students, policymakers, and planners.

Table of Contents

Frontmatter

Proxy Evidences of Climate Change

Frontmatter
Glaciological Study and Climate Change in Indian Perspective
Abstract
In the late nineteenth century, glacial studies in the Himalayas began with a focus on measuring glacier snouts. Historical records from 1780 AD highlight the earliest observations of Himalayan glaciers, detailing floods caused by Kumdan glaciers in Ladakh. Detailed sketches of glacier fronts, including Rimo, Kumdan, and Sonamarg Glacier, were produced in the mid-nineteenth century. A photograph of the ‘Cow’s mouth’ (Gaumukh), the snout of the Gangotri Glacier, was published around the same time. Remote sensing techniques have significantly advanced glacier studies, particularly in extensive glacier mapping. Recognizing the vital role of water in life, the International Commission on Snow and Ice (ICSI) formulated guidelines for completing glacier inventory data in 1970. In 2010, the Government of India launched the National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Eco-System under the National Action Plan on Climate Change. This mission is crucial as the Himalayas house primary resources of snow and glaciers, serving as the largest source of mineral and clean water for perennial rivers like the Ganga, Indus, and Brahmaputra. Preserving and sustainably managing the Himalayan ecosystem is essential for ensuring the continued availability of these vital resources.
Promila Bhardwaj, Rupendra Singh, Syed Umer Latief
Climate Change Impact on Hydrogeochemical Characteristics of Himalayan Glacier Meltwater
Abstract
The melting process of glacier ice and snow in the Himalayas is highly influenced by the changing climate, potentially impacting the hydrogeochemistry of the glacial meltwater. Changing climate is closely linked to extreme events, such as rainfall and temperature, acting as significant drivers that necessitate in-depth understanding. While extensive research studies have explored the role of climate change in posing risks to drinking water quality and contributing to water pollution from catchment areas, less attention has been devoted to addressing specific sensitive water quality parameters for impact reduction. This chapter focuses on the effect of climate change on glacier meltwater, drawing insights from recent literature on the broader influences on the water quality of different areas of the Himalayas, including the relationship of climatic factors. A variation in glacier meltwater chemistry studied in the Himalayas has been analysed, especially HCO3, SO42−, Cl, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+. The pH level of the meltwater from Himalayan glaciers exhibits variation, ranging from acidic to alkaline, owing to the diverse geology and dissolution of rock minerals in the glacial meltwater. The trend of the hydro-geochemical parameters in the Himalayan region specifies that the concentrations of significant anions and cations HCO3, SO42−, Cl, Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ are increasing compared to the earlier years. This is attributed to the higher temperatures promoting rock exposure and intensifying weathering processes in the glaciated valleys of the Himalayas. Through our analysis of previous research, we have identified a knowledge gap, prompting us to propose exploring additional research avenues. Specifically, we investigate climate change’s impact on glacier meltwater quality. It is imperative to comprehend these effects as it lays the foundation for developing effective strategies to manage and mitigate the consequences of climate change on water quality.
Ramesh Kumar, Rajesh Kumar, Atar Singh, Prity Singh Pippal, Pankaj Kumar, Payal Sharma, Tanuja, Abhilasha Sharma, Jagvir Singh
Impact of Changing Climate on the Cryospheric Region and Glacier Retreat in the Himalayan Region
Abstract
The concentration of greenhouse gases in the air is gradually rising because of human activity and industrialization, leading to global warming and climate change. Climate change and global warming will affect temperature and other factors, including precipitation intensity and amount, cloud shelter, breeze, and radiation. The melting of ice sheets and glaciers throughout the planet is a sensitive and obvious sign of the global average temperature rise scenario. Sea-level rise (SLR), mountain-fed river hydrology, the freshwater balance of the seas, natural catastrophes, and even the Earth’s physical attributes (rotational behaviour and shape) are just a few examples of processes that may be directly impacted. The faster pace of retreat compels us to consider the other elements influencing it right now, even if glacial evacuation is a natural occurrence caused by the earth’s transition to a warmer phase. This chapter discusses the impact of changing climate on the Cryospheric Region and the glacier retreat in the Himalayan Region. The chapter highlights the immediate and long-term consequences of glacier retreat, including rising sea levels, water availability changes, and threats to local communities and ecosystems. The chapter also presents case studies from the Himalayan region, including the Dokriani, Chhota Shigri, Satopanth and Bhagirath Kharak, and Milam glaciers, to illustrate the influence of climate change on glaciers and the surrounding areas. Finally, the chapter concludes that immediate and concerted action is essential to mitigate the special effects of climate change on glaciers in the Himalayan region and ensure the sustainability of the natural resources and communities.
Pankaj Kumar, Deepankshi Shah, Snigdha Singh, Ramesh Kumar, Rajesh Kumar, Nakul Kumar, Virendra Kumar Yadav, Manoj Kumar, Vinars Dawane, Harish Bisht, Mohd. Tariq
Indian Himalayan Glaciers’ Health Under Changing Climate
Abstract
The great Himalayan region covers approximately 2000 km from east to west. It is referred to as the Asian water tower as it feeds water to 1.9 billion people in Asia. The range extends to several Asian countries like Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Nepal, and Pakistan. The Himalayan glaciers provide water to numerous sizeable Asian river systems, i.e., Amu Darya, Brahmaputra, Ganges, Indus, Irrawaddy, Mekong, Salween, Tarim, Yangtze, and Yellow. These glaciers significantly alter stream flow in quantity and timing, as annual basin run-off could be increased or decreased depending on annual negative or positive glacier mass balance, respectively. Although glacial expansions and retreats are natural phenomena, the melting rate has recently accelerated due to changes in climatic conditions due to an excess concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The rate of glacier melting is significant, and this accelerated melting may not only cause natural hazards such as landslides and glacier lake outburst floods but also increase the phantom of shrinking water resources in the long run. This threatens the low-line population’s freshwater supply and other essential services like food, energy, and livelihood security.
Shruti Singh, Rajesh Kumar, Atar Singh, Jagvir Singh
Role of Aerosols in Atmospheric Dynamics and Deciphering the Climate Change
Abstract
Aerosols in the Earth’s atmosphere play a crucial role in climate change dynamics, yet their complicated interactions and impacts remain challenging to interpret. This chapter explores the complex relationship between aerosols and climate change by examining their properties, sources, transport, and atmospheric interactions. Through a comprehensive review of scientific studies and observational data, we investigate the mechanisms through which aerosols influence climate dynamics and radiative forcing. This study revealed how aerosols interact with solar radiation, leading to cooling or warming effects on the Earth’s surface responsible for climate change. The influence of atmospheric dynamics on aerosol concentrations’ spatial and temporal variability has been analyzed, shedding light on their diverse patterns and impacts.
Furthermore, we investigated the integration of observational data into climate models, enhancing our understanding of aerosol-climate interactions and improving projections of future climate scenarios. The chapter also addresses the challenges and uncertainties associated with modeling aerosol-climate interactions. By deciphering the role of aerosols in climate change, we gain insights into their contributions to radiative forcing, regional climate variations, and the overall complexity of the Earth’s climate system. The importance of reducing uncertainties in aerosol measurements, refining models, and implementing effective mitigation strategies to address aerosol impacts on climate change has been discussed. The result demonstrates that the global average direct radiative forcing due to aerosols is about −0.5 (W/m2) with a range of uncertainty (−1.2 to −0.1 W/m2), while indirect radiative forcing due to aerosols is −0.45 W/m2 with a range of uncertainty (−0.9 to −0.1 W/m2). The corresponding global average radiative effect of aerosols is around 0.6 °C, offsetting the warming due to greenhouse gases. These results are valuable for researchers, policymakers, and climate scientists striving to comprehend the complex dynamics between aerosols and climate change.
Prity Singh Pippal, Rajesh Kumar, Ramesh Kumar, Atar Singh, Payal Sharma, Narpat Surela, Tanuja, Abhilasha Sharma, Jagvir Singh, Sajjan Joshi
Examining Rainfall Trends in Guntur District, Andhra Pradesh, India, Amidst the Climate Change Challenge: A Comprehensive Analysis of Global Warming Impacts
Abstract
Due to increased anthropogenic activities like industrialization, urbanization, increased population density and size, land cover/use change, burning of fossil fuels, waste heat emissions from automobiles and industries, buildings, excessive use of air conditioning, rising levels of aerosols, and construction activities like reservoirs, nature has seen a transformation in climatic conditions at an unprecedented rate in recent decades. The goal of the current study is to examine the spatial and temporal variability in the Indian state of Andhra Pradesh’s Guntur District (Buishand (Journal of Hydrology 58:11–27, 1982)). The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) statistics for the years 1988–2017 were used to compile information on factors relating to the rainfall in 20 chosen revenue mandals of the district. On an annual and decadal basis, numerous studies were performed using monthly rainfall values. Tables were used to show the results of the temporal and spatial studies. However, analyses of seasonal rainfall showed that there was a reduction in rainfall during the hot weather (Mar–May) and northeast monsoon seasons (Oct–Dec), but there was a slight increase in rainfall during the southwest monsoon season (Jun–Sep) and in the cold weather season (Nov–Feb). The analysis of rainfall in different Mandals of the District showed that the annual mean rainfall of all the Mandals is slightly dropping.
Satya Srinivasa Gopinadh Garre, V. K. Aswathy

Climate-Induced Vulnerability: Approaches Towards Sustainable Livelihood

Frontmatter
Climate-Induced Vulnerability, Adaptation, and Mitigation Strategies: A Case Study of Chamoli District, Garhwal Himalayas
Abstract
The livelihood of the Himalayan Mountain inhabitants is inextricably linked to the region’s climate. Therefore, every change in climatic conditions has a considerable impact on mountain livelihoods. The Himalayan region has been witnessing the climate change repercussions. This research analyses the People’s perspectives towards climatic changes as well as the accompanying dynamics. The calculation of land surface temperature (LST) shows that there has been a significant increase in temperatures at high altitudes. The majority of the people feel the weather has become warmer in general, as well as an abrupt changes in the rainfall has been witnessed. The intensity, duration, and type of precipitation have all been observed to have varied significantly. Also, water scarcity has increased and the agricultural field has also shown reduced productivity. There have been several alterations in the livelihood pattern of the people due to the changing environmental scenario. As a result, the diversification of livelihood has gained importance. Therefore, there is an urgent need to characterize, analyze, and comprehend the vulnerability of dependent communities in mountain regions. The findings of this study reveal that local people seem cognizant of climate variability and its effects and they have shifted towards diverse livelihood sources. Thus, climate change and its driving variables must be clearly understood in order to accomplish successful management of natural resources as well as the well-being of the local community.
Roosen Kumar, Anamika Sharma, Jitender Rathore, Alkeshwari Negi, Kaushal Kumar Sharma, Shashank Patel
Climate Change and Nature-Based Solutions: Harnessing Nature’s Potential for Adaptation and Mitigation
Abstract
This chapter investigates nature-based solutions (NbS) as a technique for addressing the issues posed by climate change. It investigates the potential of NbS in adaptation and mitigation efforts, demonstrating the wide spectrum of nature-based approaches that might be used. The chapter also addresses the advantages, disadvantages, and considerations of deploying NbS, as well as examples of successful case studies from around the world. Finally, the chapter underlines the necessity of incorporating nature-based solutions into climate change policies and strategies in order to promote sustainability, resilience, and harmonious coexistence with nature.
Satya Srinivasa Gopinadh Garre
Human Vulnerability in the Changing Environment of the Active Delta Region of India: Impacts in the Indian Sunderbans
Abstract
Sunderbans lying in the active delta region of Lower Ganga plains is one of the most biologically protective and taxonomically diverse ecosystems of the Indian subcontinent. The objectives of the present study are the assessment of the flora and fauna of this region and the effects on climate change. A special emphasis has been given to study the humans of this region comprising mostly tribal population who have been hitherto understudied. An attempt has been made to study the various environmental problems related to changing climatic conditions in the region and the level of vulnerability of the population living here to these vagaries. Census data including Houselisting data were used to calculate Livelihood Vulnerability Index (LVI) for community development blocks. A vulnerability map of the Sunderban region was created based on LVI data. A total of 6 out of 19 blocks show extreme vulnerability and require special attention from the government and policy makers to mitigate the risks and relocate them to safer lands.
Milind Shekhar Anand
Understanding Livelihood Diversification as a Sustainable Adaptive Strategy to Existing Challenges in the Higher Himalayan Villages
Abstract
The Himalayan region, also known as the third pole region, has been considered particularly fragile, marginal, and inaccessible besides being exceptionally diverse. International Panel on Climate Change reports confirm that because of global warming the Himalayas have lost a quarter of their ice cover. The impacts of climate change augment the existing problems specific to the mountain region. The rural Himalayan communities are vulnerable to various socioeconomic, environmental, geographic, and climatic factors. These communities have a direct and high dependence on natural resources for subsistence and livelihood. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood for majority of rural mountain communities. However, due to climatic and non-climatic factors, there is high risk of crop failure and crop production is low. Manifold challenges make agriculture economically unviable, and this has led to livelihood diversification as an adaptive strategy. Livelihood diversification forms an integral part of rural Himalayas. However, it has led to shift from farm activities to non-farm activities. The dearth of alternative livelihood opportunities in the hills either leads to migration of male folks out of villages or they choose to earn by risking their life. This study is an in-depth qualitative analysis which was carried out in two high-altitude villages of Saryu Valley in Bageshwar district, Uttarakhand. The study attempts to identify existing challenges and the local adaptation strategies. It attempts to understand whether the diversified livelihoods are sustainable in the long term.
Mahika Phartiyal, Sanjeev Sharma
Sustainability Through Sacred Groves
Abstract
Sacred groves have historically been a crucial form of conservation strategy around the globe, finding a place from the European continent to Southeast Asian countries. India is a prime location for their existence, hosting approximately 15,000 sacred groves. With such an excessive number of forests being protected through traditional knowledge, conducting a socioeconomic and environmental evaluation of the concept becomes crucial. With the impending threats of climate change and greenhouse gas emissions, this concept could be the key to a sustainable future. The study, therefore, focuses on establishing the relationship between sacred groves and sustainable development by highlighting the various sustainable development goals (SDGs) that this specific concept could address. This concept is highly relevant in the present context and, if utilized to its potential, could have a significant impact on meeting the sustainable development goals and the intended nationally determined contributions (INDC). To achieve these goals, it is imperative that all stakeholders work in synchronization and that indigenous technical knowledge is preserved and prioritized. Additionally, a comprehensive framework is established to assess and effectively evaluate the qualitative and quantitative impacts of the sacred groves on sustainability in the Indian context and around the globe.
Himanshu Kumar
The Climate Refugees of Bundelkhand: A Study on Issues and Challenges to Sustainable Livelihoods in Bundelkhand
Abstract
This chapter examines the causes of climate-induced displacement, commonly referred to as “climate refugees,” and the significant challenges to livelihoods in the Bundelkhand region. In today’s global discourse, climate change has become a pressing issue at national and international levels, profoundly impacting governance worldwide and exacerbating unsustainable livelihood practices. The geophysical and hydrological conditions in Bundelkhand play a crucial role in climate change, necessitating urgent interdisciplinary attention to find sustainable solutions. The region is burdened with labels such as “water poverty region,” “backward region,” “livelihood crisis region,” “farmer’s suicide region,” and “ecologically fragile region” due to the adverse effects of climate change, resulting in a triad of challenges: drought, deprivation, and depopulation.
To gain empirical insights into the region’s livelihoods, primary surveys were conducted, informing the content of this paper. Various factors have been identified as the root causes of livelihood challenges, prompting individuals to become climate refugees and seek refuge in urban metropolitan cities. This study presents innovative strategies that prioritize human well-being and address livelihood challenges by emphasising the roles of government, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and self-help groups (SHGs). These strategies aim to ensure equitable access to affordable, accessible, and high-quality food grains, education, healthcare, employment opportunities, constitutional rights, crop diversification, and the utilisation of traditional knowledge systems (TKS) in agroforestry business and water resource management.
Furthermore, this study explores the potential of cutting-edge technologies such as artificial intelligence, cloud computing, data banking, the fourth industrial revolution, and 5G technology in mitigating unsustainable livelihood challenges. These advancements offer promising avenues for sustainable development, fostering resilience in the face of climate change impacts. By addressing the complex web of challenges faced by the Bundelkhand region, this research endeavours to provide a comprehensive understanding of climate change-induced livelihood crises and offers practical solutions to promote sustainable development. The proposed strategies underscore the importance of collaborative efforts between stakeholders and the integration of innovative technologies to achieve a resilient and prosperous future for the region.
Rohit Kumar Yadav
Emerging Need to Sustain and Preserve the Traditional Knowledge of Indigenous Communities to Combat Climate Change
Abstract
Unplanned anthropological activities are affecting the earth at all levels, causing tremendous environmental degradation and climate change. The impacts of climate change on indigenous communities have been observed worldwide, and the use of their indigenous knowledge to mitigate these impacts and promote sustainable development is now widely acknowledged. This chapter is an attempt to investigate the importance of indigenous communities' traditional knowledge to combat climate change, its inclusion in climate mitigation measures, and the urgency for its preservation and sustenance. A huge database on the ecological knowledge of indigenous communities to combat climate change was screened and analyzed to draw out the results and conclusions. The chapter highlights the strong advocacy of international organizations and researchers in adopting the indigenous communities’ traditional knowledge to combat climate change and achieve sustainable development goals. India, with a huge tribal population (84.33 million), has a rich repository of indigenous knowledge that can provide viable solutions to climate change issues. The study recommends the urgency of including traditional ecological knowledge in climate policy and the preservation and sustenance of this knowledge system for a sustainable future.
Mohmad Abass Bhat, Pratima G. Wadhwani

Policy and Governance

Frontmatter
Climate Change Adaptation Policies and Governance: A Critical Appraisal
Abstract
The change in climate has a significant impact on the lives of the people and consequently their livelihoods. This threat is seen to be growing in recent times. This research critically assesses governance and adaptation measures aimed at reducing the effects of climate change on the resilience of ecosystems and communities. A critical appraisal of these policies and governance structures is vital to identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. To understand the various aspects of climate change adaptations and the way the government has approached this issue to mitigate the risk, a review of different studies was exhaustively carried out. The scientific studies suggest that sectoral-specific plans are required to tackle the issues of natural disasters, agriculture, natural resources, and water bodies effectively. However, several challenges persist, including inadequate funding, fragmented policies, and the need for more integrated, cross-sectoral approaches to reduce the impacts. Additionally, the effectiveness of governance structures at different levels depends on political will and the capacity to implement policies effectively.
Vijendra Kumar Pandey, Anshu, Kaushal Kumar Sharma
Adaptation Policy and Governance Towards Tribal Communities of Southern Rajasthan, India
Abstract
There have an always been a debate among administration, society, and scientists that which way would be appropriate for the survival and sustainable development of the tribals. On one hand there is a way of reconciliation with the mainstream based on their conditions, on the other hand with the mainstream isolation is an option.
Governments around the world want to make tribals as a part of the economy through eco-tourism, heritage villages, etc. The tribal community is basically associated with totemism, but this situation removes them from their roots, that is why the entry and interference of the government system in tribal areas has been viewed with apprehension.
The question of how to ensure the survival and sustainable development of tribal communities has sparked debates among administrations, societies, and scientists worldwide. Two contrasting approaches have emerged: one advocates for tribal reconciliation with the mainstream, while the other suggests isolation from it.
On the other hand, if tribal communities want a better world, then they will have to struggle to achieve the right of self-determination and autonomy recognized by the United Nations. In both the ways, the biggest challenge will be preserving their identity and existence.
Southern Rajasthan is inhabited by diverse tribals, and successful ecotourism planning and implementation will bring social empowerment through community participation, community mobilization, infrastructure improvement, and cultural awareness. Socially and economically active, culturally and environmentally sustainable, through better and stricter policies targeting the beneficial ecology in the region, creating employment opportunities for the local people and improving the standard of living of the participants will be able to improve.
Shaily Mehta
Climate Change and Its Effects on Major Crops Production in Assam, India
Abstract
Climate change is a gradual variance in the weather pattern that has a long-term impact on the planet at the global level. Over the last few decades, climate change has been visible in the form of variations in temperatures and weather patterns. The present study purposively selected Assam as the study region, the state that is most vulnerable to climate change in India. With this background, the study made an attempt to examine the effects of climate change on major growing crops in the state, such as rice, sugarcane, jute, tea, potatoes, wheat, oilseeds, maize, small millets, arhar, and gram crop production variability/sensitivity to the primary climatic variables (i.e., temperature, precipitation, and relative humidity). The crop production data were collected from the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy (CMIE) Commodities Database, and the climatic data were collected from the Prediction of Worldwide Energy Resources (POWER) NASA database for the period 1991–2020. Multiple linear regression was employed to estimate the climate-driven variations in production and yield. The study found that more than 50% of production variation caused by climate factors occurs in rice (51%), wheat (65%), tea (55%), and small millets (60%), in which rice and tea are positively affected by relative humidity and wheat and small millets are negatively affected. In case of yield and climate effect, only rice has 58% of the variation in yield caused by relative humidity with a positive effect. The study also depicted temperature maximum and relative humidity as important climatic variables in Assam. To an extent, the study will also provide policy implications to cope with the climate change impacts.
A. Premkumar, D. Kalaiarasi, A. Rohini, D. Murugananthi
Hailstorm and Loss Assessment—A Farmers’ Perspective from Hisar, Haryana
Abstract
The uncertainty surrounding the impact of climate change is depicted by an associated increase in the number and severity of extreme weather events. It is bound to influence agricultural production across India. With this background, the current study taps into the effects of three hailstorm events during the month of March in Hisar, Haryana. The study records the significant influence of hailstorms on crop productivity. With the increase in climate variability, there is bound to be a direct effect on agricultural production, hence, the need to develop an elaborate policy framework to deal with such extreme weather events. The absence of an objective post-disaster contingency plan with respect to localized extreme events such as hailstorms affects the farmers’ income, especially in agriculture-based states like Haryana. The study emphasizes the need for a structured disaster framework to deal with the impact of hailstorm events on crop production.
Vishavjeet Dhanda
Responses to Climate Change in Global North and South: A Case of Urban Local Bodies
Abstract
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its fourth Assessment Report detailed the interaction between human and environmental systems and their modelled climate predictions until 2100. They define climate change as ‘a change in the state of the climate by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or longer’ (IPCC, Climate change 2007: synthesis report. An Assessment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, p. 30). Driving this process are four main factors that alter the energy balance of the earth: emissions of atmospheric greenhouse gases and aerosols from both human and natural sources, changes in land cover and solar radiation. The IPCC report is structured around a framework that links the anthropogenic drivers, impacts and responses to the climate process. This framework contains three interdependent areas, namely: climate change, its impacts and human vulnerability; and development, mitigation and adaptation. The key aspects of climate change that will affect humans are temperature and precipitation levels and patterns, sea-level rise as a result of water expansion and ice melt, and changes in frequency of extreme events. The multidirectional process of climate change impacts human health, water, food and settlement use, and ecosystem evolution. These, in turn, are linked to the socio-economic-political structure and its approaches for adapting to the changing climate, and mitigating the drivers of further climate change.
This chapter adopts a similar structure to the IPCC in addressing the specific factors that shape the responses of urban authorities to climate change in developing and developed countries. The first part of this chapter assesses the impact of climate change on different urban areas and variations by location. The second part identifies the vulnerability profile across the population by examining the risk of exposure and the ability to cope and recover. The third part addresses the capability of urban authorities to respond to climate change by implementing adaptation and mitigation policies. Finally, the chapter concludes by examining the overarching factors that link vulnerability and the structure of the sociopolitical system to how urban authorities respond to the challenges of climate change.
Jeetesh Rai, Bikramaditya Kumar Choudhary, Smriti Soni, Sandeep Rai
Impact of Anthropogenic Activities Along the Rani Khola, Gangtok District, Sikkim
Abstract
The impact of anthropogenic activities along the river can be substantial and have far-reaching consequences for both the environment and human communities. Rani Khola is facing significant impacts due to anthropogenic activities. This study examines the geomorphic features along the Rani Khola in a buffer zone of 1 km, changes in land use and land cover over the 16 years, and the consequences of human interventions on the river morphology and pattern using a combination of primary and secondary data sources. Increase in population and built-up areas along the river are the two most triggering factors for the change in the river and its morphology. The major activities that affected the morphology and pattern of river are the construction of NH-31A and the mining of sand and gravel from the quarry ground. Due to the construction of NH-31A, the built-up areas have increased along the river making the river narrow, and numerous landslides along the river triggered by the construction of road and multiple channel formation due to the intensive mining in the river have resulted in the change in pattern and the morphology of the river. Understanding of these impacts is essential for identifying areas of concern and developing informed river restoration strategies.
Yamuna Sharma, Rajesh Kumar
Backmatter
Metadata
Title
Climate Change and Human Adaptation in India
Editors
Kaushal Kumar Sharma
Sanjeev Sharma
Vijendra Kumar Pandey
Rupendra Singh
Copyright Year
2024
Electronic ISBN
978-3-031-55821-4
Print ISBN
978-3-031-55820-7
DOI
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-55821-4