Climate Change Impact on Himalayan Biodiversity

Table of Contents

1. Frontmatter

2. Chapter 1. Research on Medicinal Plants in the Himalaya: Current Knowledge and Future Directions

   Bhawana Dangwal, Dhani Arya, Indra D. Bhatt, Suresh K. Rana

   Abstract

   Medicinal plants have always remained a topic of interest to researchers and policymakers due to their importance in supplying raw materials for modern therapeutics. We assessed the current state of knowledge on Himalayan medicinal plants to understand the gaps and future research opportunities. We reviewed the scientific literature published during 1959–2022 to assess spatial, temporal, and thematic trends in the research on the Himalayan medicinal plants. The number of publications increased continuously nearly fivefold during the last decade in the Himalaya. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and ecology are the dominant fields of research. India ranks at the top in research contribution and funding for research on medicinal plants in the Himalaya. More research has been conducted in western Himalayan states and Nepal, whereas eastern Himalayan biodiverse regions are least studied for their medicinal plant wealth. The highest percentage of research has been conducted on themes like conservation, ethnobotany, antioxidants, traditional knowledge, essential oil, ethnomedicine, phytochemicals, etc. The scientific information on the Himalayan medicinal plants provides a powerful resource for pharmaceutical advancement, drug discovery, and economic upliftment of the indigenous communities in the region. Summarized information in this study can further be utilized for data-driven and well-informed policies for the conservation and sustainable utilization of the medicinal plant wealth of the Himalaya.

3. Chapter 2. Deciphering Prehistoric Forts of Uttarakhand, Western Himalaya: An Opportunity for Historical Tourism

   Govind Singh Negi, Sonam Bahuguna, Naveen Chandra, Yahya Kazmi, Shashank Lingwal, Gajendra Singh

   Abstract

   Uttarakhand is among the most sacred places in the Himalaya and has always been the core of enticement from the outlook of tourism. Due to little information available on the historical and ancient places of the state, the growth of tourism is restricted to a few known places. The present study investigated (i) the prehistoric forts (Garh/Kot) along with their current status and (ii) exploring possibilities for historical tourism in the Uttarakhand state, western Himalaya. Under SALSA framework, systematic literature review was conducted to collect primary information from online sources, followed by extensive field surveys over 15 years, across the state to collect information related to present status and exact geographical position of Garh/Kot using Global Positioning System (GPS). A total of 235 Garh (majorly from Garhwal region) and 168 Kot (majorly representing Kumaun region) were listed. Maximum number of Garh/Kot were reported from Pauri (81/27) district followed by Tehri (55/9) and Uttarkashi (28/6) districts. Similarly, maximum number of Kotwere inventoried from Pithoragarh district (42) followed by Almora (29), Pauri (27), Nainital (18) and Champawat (17). The information of such historic places would give the riveting surge to the tourism circle to plan, protect and promote the historical heritages for sightseeing and economic purpose, which would help in decentralizing tourists from overcrowded places.

4. Chapter 3. Investigating the Richness and Therapeutic Applications of Indigenous Medicinal Flora in Arunachal Pradesh, Northeastern India

   Suman Halder, Subhajit Lahiri, Arijit Ghosh, Mriganka Shekhar Sarkar

   Abstract

   Ethnomedicine, a holistic approach integrating plants, spirituality, and the natural world, has long served as a fundamental source of healing. In the Eastern Himalaya region, particularly Arunachal Pradesh, medicinal plants play a pivotal role in cultural, spiritual, and healthcare domains. Despite extensive documentation of traditional medicinal plant use by various tribal communities in North-East India, comprehensive exploration in Arunachal Pradesh remains scarce. This study aims to fill this gap by compiling indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in the region, focusing on traditional uses, plant parts utilized, medicinal properties, and their richness distribution across elevational gradients. Data compilation from 199 sources facilitated the identification of 508 medicinal plant species spanning 158 families. Leaves, fruits, and roots emerged as primary plant parts utilized in traditional medicine. The study employed a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) to analyze species richness across elevation gradients. The model featuring an automatic smoothing term, emerged as the best-fit model, effectively elucidating the relationship of medicinal plant richness over elevation gradients of the state. The richness map revealed concentrations of medicinal flora in the tropical Himalayan region, emphasizing the ecological significance of conservation efforts. The findings underscore the region's ecological uniqueness and the importance of preserving its rich medicinal plant biodiversity for future generations.

5. Chapter 4. Population Status of High-Value Medicinal and Decadal Climate Variability in Niti Valley, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya

   Arun Pratap Mishra, Himanshu Sahu, Amit Kumar

   Abstract

   This study investigates the impact of climate variability on threatened medicinal plants, using Landsat-8 for NDVI analysis in the Niti valley, a cold-arid region of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Decadal temperature trends, derived from TERRACLIMATE data, reveal consistent warming, particularly in summer, while precipitation patterns from CHIRPS exhibit both increasing and decreasing trends. Correlation analysis emphasizes complex interactions, highlighting a strong positive correlation between temperature and precipitation. NDVI trends showcase vegetation health dynamics, indicating favorable conditions and stress periods. Population assessment of medicinal plant species namely Allium stracheyi, Carum carvi, Dactylorhiza hatagirea, Picrorhiza kurroa and Sinopodophyllum hexandrum unveils varying densities and threats, with cultivated species facing pressure due to local consumption and trade, and those in specific habitats highly threatened by overexploitation. Results demonstrate a strong positive correlation between temperature and precipitation, along with a weak negative correlation between NDVI and temperature/precipitation. The study aligns observed trends with global climate change patterns, underscoring the interconnected nature of climate-vegetation relationships. Urging for sustainable harvesting and conservation, the findings stress the need for adaptive strategies. The study contributes to the discourse on environmental challenges, advocating for collaborative efforts to ensure a sustainable future for the Himalayan region and its diverse plant species.

6. Chapter 5. Scoping of Forest Resources in Light of Climate Change Implications in Western Himalayan Region

   Sugandha, Mahika Phartiyal, Harshit Pant Jugran

   Abstract

   The Himalayan ecosystem, particularly the western Himalayan region of the Indian Himalayan region (IHR) forms an integral part of the global ecosystem which influences the entire Indian peninsular landmass by providing irrigational facilities to the plain regions along with high content of alluvial soil deposits. More importantly, it is a kernel of natural resources and has a rich forest resource base with great contrast in the vegetation pattern changing from Temperate to Alpine with the elevation change. The rural Himalayan communities are very close to nature and highly depend on forest resources. However, the ever-increasing pressure on these ecosystems results in further ecological damage to an already fragile landscape. The huge natural wealth of the region necessitates proper governance of the natural resource base. Economical, indirect and quick benefits from forests are much higher than the direct and sustained benefits but the continuous anthropogenic activities affect the resources at the higher side. Anthropogenic activities such as grazing, ruthless lopping, land use changes, forest fire, indiscriminate non-wood forest products (NWFP) collection, exploitation, excessive resource extraction using faulty methods, and ethical and moral changes towards sustainable management are causing disturbances in the Himalayan forests by leading to the change in the structure of forest and altering the species composition which further can accelerate succession. Though concerns are being raised about the loss of native knowledge and the possible extinction of plant resources, hence conservation and sustainable management of key habitats could contribute to safeguarding the heritage of this economically and socio-ecologically rich region.

7. Chapter 6. Keystone Insects: Influences on Ecosystem Structure and Their Function in the Himalayan Region

   Suman Upadhyay, Sunaullah Bhat, Sandeep Kumar, Sangeeta Rawat

   Abstract

   The Himalayan region, renowned for its rich biodiversity and stunning landscapes, harbors a delicate ecosystem where certain insects act as keystone species, exerting a disproportionate influence on the entire system. This chapter explores the significance of keystone insects, particularly ecosystem engineers like ants and termites in the Himalayas, and aquatic insects in stream and river ecosystems. Keystone insects play crucial roles in nutrient cycling, habitat modification, and the regulation of other species, contributing to the resilience of these ecosystems. This review study also addresses the impact of human activities on keystone insects and delves into the effects of climate change, emphasizing the vulnerability of these species to environmental shifts. Additionally, the role of predatory insects in herbivore regulation is discussed, showcasing their importance in maintaining ecological balance. The chapter underscores the need for research and conservation efforts to safeguard keystone insects and preserve the intricate relationships within these ecosystems.

8. Chapter 7. Preliminary Field Observation on Spatio-Temporal Changes on Rajma Crop and Citrus Fruit Cultivation Areas in the Himalayan Watershed Using Interactive Geo-Informatics Technique

   D. S. Parihar, Mahendra Singh, Deepak

   Abstract

   Global warming and climate change are the most important environmental challenges that affect the entire natural ecosystem including agriculture and horticulture of the globe. Different villages of the study area in different aspects, i.e., agriculture, horticulture, economy and development etc. had found large implication of global warming. The state of the farmers and farming crops is a on the state of affairs about farmers’ livelihoods and economic wellbeing in the Himalayan watershed, i.e., Gori Ganga. The data and information presented here, has been gathered using different means. Primary data was sourced through interview, group discussions in sample villages. Each village selected for field surveying represented a major farming culture of related crop and care was taken that these are picked up from across the watershed area. The present study is based on exploratory and analytical research design As a result, it was observed that total sample sites are 55 (32.74%) village out of 168 villages where 28 (16.67%) villages were belongs to Rajma cultivation and 27 (16.07%) villages citrus fruit cultivation. The highest affected villages by temporal changes on Rajma crop and Citrus fruit cultivation areas were observed after 2010. Where the crop quality, size and real local taste were disappear.

9. Chapter 8. Conservation Challenges and Adaptation Strategies for Indian Himalayan Biodiversity in a Changing Climate

   Tridipa Biswas, Sivaranjani Subramanian, Rajashekhar Niyogi, Wishfully Mylliemngap, Sohini Mitra, Dhiraj Kumar Das, Mriganka Shekhar Sarkar

   Abstract

   The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), renowned for its rich biodiversity and cultural diversity, confronts formidable challenges from ongoing climate change, habitat degradation, and human activities. This review-based study reveals the profound vulnerability of the IHR to climate change impacts, including rising temperatures, glacial retreats, and altered precipitation patterns, threatening the region's unique flora, fauna, and ecosystem services. However, amidst these challenges, we identify key adaptation strategies crucial for conserving Himalayan biodiversity. Strengthening protected areas and corridors, empowering local communities through community-based conservation initiatives, and implementing sustainable land-use planning emerge as pivotal measures to mitigate threats and foster resilience. Additionally, leveraging technological innovations such as remote sensing and conservation genetics offers promising avenues for monitoring biodiversity changes and implementing proactive conservation measures. We emphasize the imperative of collaborative action, robust policy frameworks, and interdisciplinary approaches to safeguard the invaluable natural and cultural heritage of the IHR and build resilience against ongoing environmental changes.

10. Chapter 9. Current Status and Cataloging of Threatened Plants of Uttarakhand

    Shaiphali Saxena, Jitendra Prasad

    Abstract

    Uttarakhand, one of the divisions of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), is an abode of exclusive floral and faunal biodiversity of India. The state is exceptionally bestowed with multifarious natural ecosystems and the very first province to release the report on the conservation of endemic threatened flora to redress the plant blindness in this era of rapidly declining biodiversity. In this order, the present study is a little attempt to compile a list of total threatened flora of Uttarakhand with the help of state, national and international literature. The results concluded a total of 358 plant species under different threat categories within the state. Moreover, nearly half of the total threatened flora emerged out as endemic (40% bryophytes, 100% pteridophytes and 40.3% angiosperms). Collectively, the angiosperms dominated the threatened list of total flora of Uttarakhand followed by gymnosperms, bryophytes and fungi. This may be due to the less attention paid on lower flora to collect the information at different levels. To ignore such type of plant blindness, the United Nations Biodiversity has also insisted the people to use the new term ‘funga’ alongside ‘flora and fauna’. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is universally acknowledged to assess the red list of the total threatened floral and faunal species. However, the other threat assessing organizations at state, national and international levels should be given equal importance to maintain the threatened data about all the species of the world as IUCN alone is not the last hope. Further, the collaborative efforts, fundings and engagement of governing bodies and non-governmental organizations can broaden the conservation practices.

11. Chapter 10. Ecology and Conservation Issues of Avifauna in the Ganges Floodplain of Bangladesh

    Ashikur Rahman Shome, Mohammad Firoj Jaman, Md. Mahabub Alam, Aleya Begum, Aminul Islam, Nabila Zaman Joty, Joy Roy, Mishon Chandra Deb, Md. Fazle Rabbe

    Abstract

    The Ganges floodplain of Bangladesh is one of the prominent bio-ecological zones that is enriched with wildlife resources. The natural wetlands and modified habitat in this area sustain a diverse range of avifauna. To uncover the present status, seasonality, habitat usages, existing threats, and conservation issues of avifauna, an eight year-long (2016–2023) scientific study was conducted in the Ganges floodplain of Bangladesh by direct field observation along with reviewing the published literatures of the research team of the area. A total of 260 avian species were observed under 20 orders and 62 families. Non-passerine bird species (167 species, 64.23%) specially wetland specialist birds were dominant in this area. From the study area, 98 (37.69%) migratory bird species were observed. In the avian communities among three study sites, wetland specialist bird species and individuals under the order Charadriformes, Anseriformes, Accipitriformes and Pelecaniformes was higher in the wetlands and associated habitat, whereas in terrestrial habitat Passeriformes was higher. A significant difference was found among the species richness in five types of major habitats. The highest number of bird species richness and abundance was observed during the winter season with the highest number of season-specific unique species. The wetland habitats are more important for holding the highest number of threatened bird species and important bird species. The 19 nationally threatened species along with 11 newly recorded bird species reflect the conservation necessity of this area. The observation status of avifauna from the study area shows that 116 species (44.61%) were very common, 15 (5.76%) common, 88 (33.84%) uncommon and 41 (15.76%) were few. At present, illegal bird hunting, trade of wild birds, water pollution, agricultural nets, tourism, and existing fishing practices are major threats to birds. This study will help take future conservation initiatives for the conservation of birds in the study area.

12. Chapter 11. Transition in Traditional Cropping Pattern Led to Engagement in Alternative Economic Activity

    Lakpa Tamang, Mayank Joshi

    Abstract

    Himalaya represents a unique blend of nature’s resource repository. Many resources in this belt have not been unveiled, valued or being efficiently used but on the other hand in-used resources are also depleting. In the hills of Indian Himalaya region, agriculture is the prime economic activity; which is being carried out by majority of inhabitants. The effects of Climate Change have been felt globally such as the instances of frequent drought, changing climatic pattern, floods etc. The bio-diversity of Himalayan region is also very sensitive to Climatic Change which results into decreasing many endemic species and depleting natural resources. Traditionally in Western and Eastern Himalaya, various mountain specific traditional crops are significantly grown, but due to climate change agricultural output has been significantly declined. To accommodate with this rising situation, people started to shift their means of livelihood and few changes in existing agricultural practice has been observed. Similarly, in Sikkim Himalaya also few changes have been observed in the agriculture sector due to direct impact of Climate Change. Transition in livelihood practices among farmers in Sikkim is witnessed with the decline of agricultural output. The inherent fragility and the emerging climate induced challenges put the people of this region under great livelihood stress.

13. Chapter 12. Status of Vascular Plant Endemism in Western Himalaya, India

    Himani Tiwari, Asheesh Pandey, K. Chandra Sekar, Dhani Arya

    Abstract

    Diversity of endemic plants is a prime criterion for determining the global biodiversity hotspot. Endemic species are distributed in a restricted range which often vulnerable to climate and anthropogenic disturbances, and thus require immediate effective conservation action. Considering the importance, we investigated the diversity and distribution pattern of vascular endemic plants across Western Himalaya (Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand) of Indian Himalayan Region (IHR). A total of 227 endemic taxa (207 species, 5 subspecies and 15 varieties) belonging to 115 genera and 43 families were recorded. Among the different life-forms, most of the species were herbaceous (184), followed by shrub (34), tree (4), climber (1), and bamboo (1). Asteraceae (49) was the dominant family followed by Fabaceae (17) and Poaceae (11). Endemic richness was recorded highest (113) in Uttarakhand, followed by Jammu & Kashmir (84), Himachal Pradesh (61) and Ladakh (15) respectively. Further studies are required for population assessment and conservation action of these species along with development of propagation protocols and reintroduction in natural habitat.

14. Chapter 13. Climate Change and Its Impacts on Rural Areas of Central Himalaya: Some Experiences from Almora District, Uttarakhand, India

    Puran Chandra Joshi

    Abstract

    Climate change is one of the biggest challenges in present era. Entire earth is facing this problem. Thus, the Himalayas are not untouched with this global phenomenon. The Himalayas are divided in three ranges according to their origin. Likewise, the other parts of the globe Himalayas are also facing human induced climate change. The middle part of this long mountain system is known as central Himalaya. For the past few years, this part of the Himalayas has been affected from erratic rainfall and rise in temperature. Forest fire disaster is very common in throw-out the year. As a result of this water scarcity is very common in past few years. Agricultural system is also affected, even in some areas people are not growing the wheat crop because of lack of rainfall in winter season. It is a well-known fact that climate change has severely affected the poor countries and their people. In rural areas of the central Himalayas, people who are not capable to earn much for their livelihood, they have become completely dependent on the food grains given by the government. People are forced to migrate in big cities where they lead a low standard of living due lack of resource. Present paper discusses the impacts of climatic change in culture, traditions and life style in rural Himalaya. Paper also traces out the situation of gender discourse, livelihood and out -migration in the research area due to poor situation of agriculture. Present paper will help in understand how developing societies are facing problems due to climate change.

15. Chapter 14. Impacts of Climate Warming on Biodiversity, Ecosystem Functionality, and Services in the Himalayan Landscape

    Vinod Chandra Joshi, R. C. Sundriyal, Dhani Arya

    Abstract

    The Himalayas are not merely a geological wonder but a biodiversity hotspot of global significance, housing unique flora and fauna. The unprecedented pace of climate warming in the Himalayan region poses significant threats to biodiversity, ecosystem functionality, and the critical services these ecosystems provide, ultimately affecting the livelihoods of the people inhabiting this region. It was scrutinizing the fragmentation of habitats, emphasizing the need for holistic conservation efforts. Furthermore, the study underscores the importance of Himalayan ecosystems in providing essential provisioning services, such as freshwater supply, agriculture, and forest resources. It demonstrates how climate warming is altering hydrological regimes, affecting crop yields, and influencing the distribution of forest species. In conclusion, this study highlights the interconnectedness of ecological systems in the Himalayas and the urgent need for collaborative efforts to address the consequences of climate warming. It serves as a clarion call for governments, conservation organizations, and communities to safeguard this ecologically significant region and ensure the sustainability of its services for current and future generations. The challenges are great, but with concerted action, there is hope for preserving the Himalayas’ invaluable biodiversity, functionality, and services in the face of climate change.

16. Chapter 15. Impact of Climate Change Adaptation on the Millet Crops: As a Climate Resilient and Sustainable Crops of Uttarakhand Himalaya

    Prema Kaira, Nisha Tamta, N. C. Pant, Jyoti Joshi, Deepak

    Abstract

    Millets are sustainable and climate resilient crop in Uttarakhand. Millets are important staple cereal crop for the poor which are known as “cereals of the poor”. These are very rich of nutrient, health conscious (low GI index), climate resilient crop and sustainable crop which have high efficiency in absorbing and utilizing carbon dioxide. Today, climate change has become a significant issue at the global level which has impact on major grain crops such as rice and wheat. Millets are adapted to high temperatures and little rainfall, are more resilient to climate change and millet crop cultivation has the potential to become a sustainable cereal crop. This paper focuses on impact of climate change adaptation on millet crops of Uttarakhand. The paper also describes how millets are climate resilient crops of Uttarakhand as a sustainable cereal crop. In this study compound annual growth rate (CAGR) has been calculated the area, production and productivity of the finger, barnyard and amaranth from 2000 to 2022 and these millets productivity ranking has been calculated by Kendall method. The main objectives of the study are identification of high yield productivity areas, examine of impacts of climate change and analyses of production and productivity of millet crops in different districts of Uttarakhand. Finger, barnyard and amaranth are major crops of Uttarakhand Himalaya in which finger has highest area, production and productivity from 2000 to 2022. The total CAGR of different millets is finger −1.24%, barnyard −1.05% and amaranth 8.15%. Uttarakashi, Rudraprayag, Chamoli, Deharadun (Hilly Area) and Champawat districts have high productivity ranking of Uttarakhand from 2000–2022. In this study the status of millet crops productivity from the time of formation of Uttarakhand till present (2022).

17. Chapter 16. Role of Bryophyes in Various Ecosystems Services and Their Function as a Green Brain

    Nisha, Ravindra Kumar

    Abstract

    Bryophytes comprise nearly 23,000 species and are part of the most diverse group of terrestrial plants. They are the most important components of biodiversity and play a significant role in ecosystem dynamics. They are able to grow in a variety of habitats, including the upper part of the ground containing humus under the forest, on soil, on rocks, in crevices, on tree barks, dead logs, and on the branches of trees. They are adapted to survive on surfaces that have the least amount of humus. The bryophytes play an important role in the ecosystem, as they fill the gaps and maintain the moisture. They can render various ecosystem services, such as oil formation, which provides habitat to small organisms; nutrient cycling; soil erosion management; pest and disease control; and bio-monitoring of heavy metals, which is an indicator of pollution.

18. Chapter 17. Exploring Lichen Species Association and Their Indicative Significance Across Various Forest Types of Western Himalayas (Uttarakhand), India

    Balwant Kumar, Pooja Bisht, Ritika Tamta

    Abstract

    The forests of Himalaya are rich in lichen diversity. On the basis of altitudinal changes lichen flora of the region has been divided into three major forest types viz. tropical, temperate and alpine. The composition of different lichen species in three major forest types of Western Himalaya has been discussed. The region's forests represent an abundance of lichens along with other vegetation. Lichens are ecologically crucial for any forest. Besides ecology, lichens are also used for preparing medicines, perfumes, spices, and other ingredients. Lichens reflect the nature of different types of forests and the woody nature found within them. Therefore, this article assesses the indicator value of lichens in different forest types of the region.

19. Chapter 18. Impact of Climate Change on Himalayan Ecosystem and Traditional Crops

    Amit Kumar, Suresh Kumar

    Abstract

    The Himalayan ecosystem, renowned for its biodiversity and cultural significance, is facing unprecedented challenges due to the impacts of climate change. These changes are analyzed in the context of their direct and indirect effects on the diverse species that inhabit the Himalayan ecosystems. Traditional crops including rice, wheat, barley, millets and numerous horticultural products are affected in terms of growth, production and geographic distribution by a number of climatic factors including rising temperatures, modified precipitation patterns and shifting weather extremes. The delicate balance of the Himalayan environment is seriously threatened by these changes, which also affect the availability of water, soil fertility, and pest dynamics, thereby challenging the traditional agricultural practices. The socio-economic ramifications of climate change on Himalayan communities heavily dependent on agriculture have several adverse effects. Shifts in traditional crop calendars, increased vulnerability to extreme weather events, and the potential loss of indigenous knowledge pose significant challenges to food security and livelihoods. This chapter will provide a comprehensive review of the effects of climate change on traditional crops cultivated in the Himalayan region, examining both the environmental and socio-economic dimensions. Additionally, it will examine the adaptation strategies employed by local communities, including the introduction of climate-resilient crop varieties, improved water management practices and community-based initiatives aimed at mitigating the adverse effects. It underscores the urgency of recognizing and addressing the multifaceted impacts of climate change on the Himalayan ecosystem and traditional crops. By fostering collaborative efforts among scientists, policymakers and local communities, we can develop adaptive strategies that not only preserve the rich cultural heritage of the region but also ensure the sustainability of agriculture in the face of a changing climate.

20. Chapter 19. Influence of Climate Change on Himalayan Ecosystem: A Review

    Neha Rawat, Neha Pandey, Aditya Joshi, Deepa Pandey

    Abstract

    The greatest challenges to economic development in the twenty-first century will come from climate change, which endangers humankind. Without a question, the most important environmental issues facing the world and humanity are those related to climate change and its uncertainties. Due to its distinctive biodiversity, delicate ecosystems, and rich cultural legacy, the Himalayan area is becoming more and more susceptible to the effects of climate change. With the goal of offering a thorough grasp of the issues and possible solutions, this research explores the complex effects of climate change on the Himalayan ecology, traditional agriculture, and renewable energy sources. With its varied flora and fauna, the Himalayan environment is undergoing changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and glacier retreat. These alterations result in changed habitats, disturbed migration patterns, and a higher risk of species extinction, endangering the delicate balance of the ecosystem. Communities that depend on the region's biodiversity for their livelihoods are directly impacted by such ecological changes. The change in climate tends to change the growing seasons, precipitation levels, and insect dynamics, posing new problems for traditional crops that are essential to the livelihood of the local community. The challenges faced by subsistence farmers and indigenous groups include reduced yields, shifting crop appropriateness, and heightened susceptibility to harsh weather. To lessen the impact on food security, the study looks at adaptation tactics and the possible introduction of crop types resistant to climate change. This study emphasizes how urgent it is to solve the interconnected problems that climate change is posing in the Himalayan area. Sustaining the distinct biodiversity and guaranteeing food security for nearby residents need the use of efficient mitigation and adaptation tactics. Policymakers, academics, and local communities working to protect the Himalayan environment in the face of climate change may learn a great deal from the findings.

21. Chapter 20. Forest Degradation and Carbon Sequestration: Assessing the Global Scenario

    Stuti Rawat, Nitesh Kumar, Arti Jamwal Sharma, Shreekar Pant

    Abstract

    Forests are key role players in carbon sequestration storing around 25% of total global carbon. The trees and soil in the forests store carbon thus reducing carbon levels in the atmosphere. Different methods like remote sensing, allometric equations, and inventories are used to quantify carbon stocks. Studies used IPCC gain–loss approach, Landsat, SPOT, ASTER, and ALI imagery data in areas with selective logging. An extensive analysis of the research papers reveals that the world’s forests contain around 861 gigatonnes of carbon. Out of this, 44% is stored in the soil up to a depth of one metre, 42% is found in live biomass both above and below the ground, 8% is present in dead wood, and 5% is located in litter, but this carbon stocks may be disturbed by land use pattern changes. A review of many findings suggest that soil carbon density reached its highest value in the silvopastoral system. SOC was affected by season and autumn season showed maximum soil carbon density. Forests get degraded due to various man-made factors as well as natural factors. This leads to loss of ecosystem services, habitat loss, and an increase in temperature. Sustainable forest management needs time to be followed as it guarantees the livelihood and well-being of people while maintaining the forests for future generations. The measures we propose for proper carbon sequestration is thatpolicy makers also take local people into considerations for management practices and formation of regulations and thus can be easily come into action.

22. Chapter 21. Assimilating Biodiversity, Conservation and Sustainable Development in the Himalayas

    Nitesh Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Arti Jamwal Sharma, Ruchika Devi, Harinder Singh Banyal, Pratibha, Vishal Rana

    Abstract

    The Himalayan region, known for its breathtaking landscapes and unique biodiversity, stands at the crossroads of conservation and sustainable development. The delicate balance between these two imperatives is critical, as the immediate natural resources of the area are indispensable to the livelihoods of the local communities. However, this fragile environment faces severe threats from the rapid expansion of infrastructure, urbanization, and the impacts of climate change. The need of the hour is an all-encompassing strategy that integrates community involvement, scientific research, and traditional knowledge to conserve the Himalayas’ biodiversity effectively. In this context, it is imperative to recognize the interconnectedness of conserving diverse flora and fauna to pursue sustainable human development. Scientific research is crucial for understanding the complex ecosystems of the Himalayas and identifying sustainable practices. Community involvement ensures the preservation of indigenous wisdom and fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility among the people. The challenge is to strike a harmonious balance that considers the environment, the well-being of local communities, and economic development concurrently. Collaborative efforts involving stakeholders such as government bodies, local communities, and environmental organizations are essential. In essence, achieving a sustainable coexistence in the Himalayas requires a holistic perspective that blends environmental conservation with community well-being and economic progress.

23. Chapter 22. Endemic Species of Himalayan Region in Sikkim

    Pranjal Sharma, Priyanka Sharma, Arti Jamwal Sharma, Ankita, Monika Rathour, Shreekar Pant

    Abstract

    Himalayas covers about five countries named as: India, China, Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. Mount Everest is the highest peak located in the Himalaya (27°59′N 86°55′E). Himalayan range is bordered on the north-west by Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, TibetanPlateau and Indo-Gangetic Plain. Some rivers like the Indus, the Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra emerged from the vicinity of the Himalayas. There are different and unique type of species found in the flora and fauna of Himalayan region. Some of these species are endemic and critically endangered. Snow leopard is the main predator found at high altitudes but fall in endangered category. There are many biodiversity hotspots, 353 new species that includes 242 plants, 16 amphibians, 16 reptiles, 14 fishes, 2 birds, 2 mammals and more than 61 invertebrates have been found in the eastern Himalaya in the year between 1998–2008.In Sikkim, the climate varies from sub-tropical in the south to tundra in the north and the average annual temperature in most of the area of Sikkim is about 18 °C. For the protection of the biodiversity in Sikkim the government made many protected areas such as Khangchendzonga National Park, Maenam wildlife sanctuary, Shingba Rhododendron sanctuary etc. The present study is based on the vulnerability of endemic species found in the Sikkim area covers the Himalayan region due to climate change. Sikkim contains different types of plant and animal species which are of great economic importance. The livelihood of people was mostly dependent upon it. There is total 48 plant species and 20 animal species present in the flora and fauna of Sikkim are endemic due to deforestation, illegal poaching, global warming and some climate factors etc. Sikkim had lost 123 ha of its natural forest which is equal to 66.8 kt of CO₂ emissions. There is an urgent need of conservation of the biodiversity through various methods such as creation of protected areas, captive breeding and reintroduction or by increasing awareness among public for sustainable use of species.

24. Chapter 23. Role of Bamboo-Based Agroforestry in Climate Change Mitigation and Livelihood: Indian Himalayan Region Perspective

    Ashutosh Kumar, Himanshu Bargali, Kavita Bisht, Kanchan Pant

    Abstract

    According to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), carbon sinks need to be improved to gradually reduce the impacts of global warming by achieving and maintaining carbon neutrality. Studies indicated that the Himalayan subalpine, alpine and temperate forests are vulnerable to climate change. In the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR), mountainous communities rely on forests and forest-based resources for their daily needs. However, increasing anthropogenic activities are changing the land use pattern of the region. In this connection, development of sustainable land-use practices that ensure several ecological services and reduce pressure on the forest are requisite. The present study advocates the role of bamboo and agroforestry in carbon sequestration and adaptability of bamboo-based agroforestry as sustainable land use options which can play a significant role in climate change mitigation. Through the Scopus databases, we conducted a systematic review of papers using the PRISMA method. A total of 73 research documents of Scopus database consisted of 55 (81%) research articles were analysed. It was found that bamboo-based agroforestry increases the growth of bamboo, yield of crops, physiochemical properties, and above-ground biomass in degraded agricultural lands. However, in some studies, the growth rate was not significant due to different factors like spacing, canopy of bamboo, etc. Considering the carbon sequestration potential of the bamboo species and its adaptability as an agroforestry element, the bamboo-based agroforestry system needs to be investigated scientifically so that it can be taken into consideration as a viable nature-based solution for livelihood and climate change mitigation strategies for IHR.

25. 24. Correction to: Population Status of High-Value Medicinal Plants and Decadal Climate Variability in Niti Valley, Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve, Western Himalaya

    Arun Pratap Mishra, Himanshu Sahu, Amit Kumar

26. Backmatter